40
years of Tribal Theology in the Making
Takatemjen
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However,
it is helpful to review and to critically self-evaluate any theology
so that it will continue to develop and impact both the academia, the
churches and the society at large. With this understanding and
purpose, in this article, I will raise and attempt to answer some
questions which I hope will be pertinent to the ongoing discussion on
tribal theology. The questions are: What are the main concerns and
issues that the tribal theologians have addressed so far? Are there
any issues to be investigated further? What are the similarities and
the differences between the tribal theology and liberation theology?
What is the role and future of tribal theology? In order to answer
these questions, some selected works of tribal theologians are
reviewed in this paper in brief.
Development
of Tribal Theology
Renthy
Keitzar
Tribal
Theological thinking began to develop in Northeast India around the
1970s. This was a time when Liberation Theology was already in the
height of its development. At Eastern Theological College, Jorhat,
Renthy Keitzar was the first one to openly talk of the need of
developing a tribal theology. 2
He wrote:
It
is now about 150 years (that is writing in 1973, and it is now more
than 150) since the gospel message has been proclaimed in this corner
of India and so the churches must be well established on solid rock,
but they still live on a worn-out theology which is unintelligible
and irrelevant to a tribal audience. The time has come to evolve a
new theology along the line of sound biblical teaching and at the
same time a message that can penetrate into the core of tribal
mentality- one might call it a tribal Christian theology.3
In
order to achieve this, Renthy proposed that the hermeneutical task
should involve (a) taking the Bible as the norm of our faith and
practice (b) the history of the church and the confessional and
denominational traditions, and (c) our cultural traditions.4
The
primary concern of Renthy in his hermeneutics of primal vision was
the interpretation of the Christian traditions to the tribal mind. He
gave three semantic connotations to the term ‘Christian
traditions’. First, it refers to the Gospel itself, second it
refers to the confessional traditions and thirdly, the cultural
traditions.5
He asserted that the Tribal thought forms, ideas, theological terms,
life situations, and so on be adopted with adaptations in
interpreting Christian ideas. 6.
He proposed that the tribal categories like cock, rice, mithuns,
pigs and eggs, etc. be employed for explaining the Christian concept
of the sacrificial act of Christ. 7
One reason, according to Renthy which is restraining the growth of
the church in Northeast India is simply “because the Christian
message has not gone deep into the heart and is not fully cultured to
make it relevant to the people of the North East India.8
Tribal Christians need not become European or American Christians,
but remain as tribal Christians maintaining the distinctiveness of
one’s own culture.9
Taking the footsteps of Renthy, almost all the later writers of
tribal theology in Northeast India has pointed out that missionaries
were not sympathetic to tribal thought and tribal culture and were
partly responsible for the decaying and death of a culture. Modern
forces of change were at work beginning with 70s and they are still
at work and in order to counter such a development, the tribal
theologians began to speak of retaining the values of a deteriorating
culture so that the Christians will remain as Naga, Garo, Khasi, Mizo
and so on.
Renthy
identified several theologies that developed in the two-thirds world
such as the Latin American Theology, Black theology, Minjung
theology, Dalit theology and feminist theology as liberation
theologies. 10
He recognized the indigenization of Christian theology, or tribal
theology as liberation theology to certain extent because it has
developed as a resistance movement to foreign Christian thought and
ideas. 11
Thus, in Renthy’s writing, one can see a deep conviction for the
indigenization of the Christian message proclaimed by the
missionaries and a great concern to communicate the Good News to the
tribals in a meaningful way.
He
suggested several ways for this to happen. Firstly, he believed that
the Bible should be translated with utmost care so that the resulting
translation is accurate in the language in which it is translated. 12
The translated Bible must then become the basis for theological
formulation in the languages of Northeast India. He opines:
In
addition to our various oral traditions, the Holy Bible is our
normative text to determine our expression of faith and practice as
Christians…. The Bible shape our theology. Hence Bible translation
does play a very important role in shaping the theology of a given
Christian community; indeed, the Bible in a given language is the
first theological textbook in a Christian community.13
Secondly,
he asserted that an attempt should be made to understand the tribal
religions of Northeast India. That is our heritage as tribals.
Because of this traditional heritage we are what we are as
Arunachali, Assamese, Garo, Khasi-Jaintia, Manipuri/Meitei, Mizo,
Naga and Tripuri Christians. Because of this heritage, we are not
American or European Christians, but tribal Christians. And so this
tribal heritage must become the basis of Christianity in Northeast
India. 14
O.Alem
In
the line of thinking that was already introduced by Renthy Keitzar,
several important studies were taken up by tribal scholars in order
to delve into the tribal understanding of God and heritage. As for
example, one of the very first theologians to take up a study on the
tribal concept of God towards the making of a tribal theology in
Northeast India is Rev O. Alem who, in his monograph talks about the
concept of God in Ao-Naga religion. The author claimed that the main
concern of the study was to deal with the understanding of the
concept of God in Ao Religion in order to meaningfully interpret the
Christian concept of God. It is significant to note that the author
spoke of two missing elements in the Ao Naga religion, namely, the
concept of the assurance of forgiveness and the message of Christ’s
victory over sin. 15
Wati
Longchar
A
year after the publication of Tsungremology, in 1995, Wati Longchar
published his findings on the Traditional
Tribal Worldview and Modernity,
a revised version of his earlier edition entitled, Tribal
Religious Traditions in Northeast India.16
The thesis of his investigation was that in the tribal worldview
creation is the key and the central point of reference for
understanding all realities. However, in the modern worldview
creation becomes subordinate to humanity, which is the central point
of reference and norm. The main concern of Wati in this study was to
discover a new basis for a more sustainable future for the tribal
people who are threatened by destruction of land and its resources
which is the main source of life for the tribals. His theology can be
regarded also as a type of liberation theology, because it seeks to
liberate the tribals from the negative forces of modernization and a
dominant culture which is oppressive.17
K.Thanzauva
After
two years of Wati Longchar’s work on Traditional Tribal worldview
and Modernity, Thanzauva published his Theology of Community in
1997.18
In it, he speaks of the need of a theology of social transformation
in Northeast India which must be rooted in the received biblical and
theological traditions developed by Christians over nearly two
thousand years, the cultural traditions of the people and the context
of the people. He defines tribal theology as “…a theological
reflection on the tribal Christianity experiences of the interaction
of tribal culture and gospel over the past one hundred years in this
region and of the struggle for liberation.”19
Thus tribal theology seeks to understand the interaction of the
Gospel and the tribal culture and to reflect on the experiences of
the tribal people in their struggle for liberation from alienation in
society and to rediscover the liberational motifs from their tribal
traditions.
Thanzauva’s
book breaks new ground in the making of tribal theology. The author
is of the view that amongst the tribal communities of the Northeast
India, there is a common and distinctive cultural feature which can
be described as communitarian. And hence the title of the book:
Theology of Community. The concept of communitarian amongst the
tribals is taken as a basis for social transformation, social ethics,
ecclesiology and ecology. He opines that any contextual theology has
to be a reflection upon action which should lead to further action to
transform human society and individual lives. 20
It should lead to fundamental Christian values and beliefs and should
be necessarily translatable into worship. It must be incorporated
into the preaching, the hymns, the prayers and the litanies of the
Christian worship. And if this is not possible, the validity of that
particular contextual theology is questionable. 21
Ultimately, the goal of contextual theology is the realization of the
kingdom of God. 22
In
writing his theology of community, Thanzauva has clearly kept in his
mind the needs of the community, the church and society, which tribal
theology must address. He asserts that a theology can be relevant
only as it opens up to criticism and change- this is a direct
reference to the criticism of the church as regards tribal theology.
According to him, it must be open to critical self-evaluation and if
necessary, to reconstruction to meet the needs of the context in
order to be relevant. And so a relevant theology cannot be static.23
Concerns
and Issues addressed by Tribal Theology
From
the foregoing discussion, it can be inferred that tribal theology has
come a long way over the last forty years. It has addressed several
important concerns and issues of the Tribals in Northeast India,
namely, the importance of contextualization of theology,
communicating the gospel in the tribal thought forms, retaining the
good values of tribal culture in a modernized society, liberation of
land from its bondage, the transformation of a society and a people
which is in danger of losing its identiry, and so on. The approach of
doing tribal theology is different from that of Liberation theology
or Dalit Theology. The latter are attempts to liberate the poor from
socio-economic oppression by the rich, whether they be in Latin
America or in India or elsewhere. Liberation theology is more
focused in that it specifically addresses the problem of the poor,
the downtrodden, the oppressed and the issue of poverty.24
Tribal theology is wider because it addresses a number of issues
including the marginalization and the sufferings of the tribals.
Some
Issues for Further Investigation
Sources
for doing Theology
Yangkahao
Vashum in his article “Sources
for Studying Tribal Theology”25
gives a number of resources for shaping a tribal theology, they are:
- Tribal traditional heritages which are categorized under two main divisions, namely, tribal religious and socio-cultural traditions.
- Tribal experiences of the people such as their suffering, violence, underdevelopment, ethnic crisis, alienation and pain which includes people’s emotional feelings, their aspirations, and hopes.
- Tribal history, which is a history of struggle for liberation and records the identity of a people.
- Christian heritage which includes the revelation of God in Christ in the past and also in the present history, scripture and traditions.
Out
of the four sources given above, the three most used resources are
the Tribal traditional heritages, tribal experiences and tribal
history. The least used source is the Christian heritage which
includes Scripture and Christian traditions. Although it is an
accepted fact that the Bible is normative in writing tribal theology,
the Bible and the Christian traditions have not been given enough
space to interact with the tribal traditions. A contextual Theology
that is biblically based will have credibility and relevance.
Christian theology has developed as a result of reflecting on the
Bible and its teachings. It is the final authority and standard for
faith and practice. Renthy himself was very clear on this matter. He
proposed that “it is in Christ God has finally spoken and so all
our heritages must be reinterpreted in terms of God’s final
revelation in Christ Jesus”. 26
There was no proposal here for taking the cultural traditions
wholesale or indiscriminately. To study and write our tribal
traditions without bringing them to interact with the Bible and
Christ, who is God’s final revelation will be dangerous for the
life of the church and its practice.
Researching
on the tribal cultural and religious traditions have been done in
the 19th
century in Northeast India by the British administrators,
anthropologists and sociologists who produced a number of monographs
which remain to this day. These have become resource materials for
understanding tribal religions and many of our tribal studies have
been enriched because of these resources. In what ways are these
studies on tribal life and culture different from the tribal studies
that are being done today in theological circles? There are
differences but also a lot of similarities.
Our
studies and writings on tribal theology are different from the 19th
century monographs in that today’s tribal theological writings are
necessarily theological reflections on the tribal culture and their
understanding of God, history, religion and community life. Care
should be taken in our reflection so that in our theologizing we are
not carried away by something that is secondary and forget the
primary. This concern needs to be pondered upon seriously by all
theological researchers. Here I would like to point out some perils
of theologizing for which we should be aware while doing theology:27
Cultures are not static. They are always dynamic and moving towards hybrid cultures. This is something we cannot prevent. Without dismissing the past traditions, one can welcome and acknowledge the hybrid cultures also.
There is a tendency to romanticize the past at the expense of sound biblical theology.
Contextual theologians tend to treat the context as the norm for doing theology. Context alone cannot stand. The Bible should also be taken to interact with the context and the context with the Bible.
Tribal
Theology is Christian, and it should be necessarily connected with
the past, i.e the biblical text and the present, i.e the context.
Otherwise there would be no tribal theology in the long run.
Thanzauva speaks strongly of rooting tribal theology on the Bible,
thus he points to an important methodological issue in doing tribal
theology. He asserts:
Contextual theology, without ignoring the importance of scriptures and tradition, considers culture, socio-economic and political issues and the struggle of people for their liberation as important sources of theology. 28
He
rightly claims that the question which confront us in the
construction of tribal theology is how to interpret the Bible in the
context of Northeast India….their context requires a
re-interpretation of the Bible to address the problems that
encountered their lives. Unless the tribals are allowed to be
different in their interpretation of the Bible, the Bible will not
only lose its significance, Christianity will remain superficial
without really taking root into the tribal cultrure. 29
Christology:
Christology
is a neglected section in tribal theology. There is very little
reference to Christ. In speaking about the person and work of
Christ, Renthy proposed that for the tribals, it will be more
meaningful to present Jesus as ‘Christus Victor’ who liberates
us from evil spirits. He spoke of Christ as the victor over sin, the
Conqueror of all evil spirits. According to him, this idea is already
there in the Gospel of Mark where Jesus is presented as stronger than
the power of the evil spirits and the demons. This message can be
preached as it stands so that the tribals will be freed from the fear
of the evil spirits and their influence. 30
He further went on to say that there is some similarity between the
rituals of the Old Testament and the traditional Naga sacrifices. And
so the Naga categories such as rice, pigs, chickens, eggs, cows or
bulls, mithuns and even dogs can be reinterpreted to explain the
atoning sacrifice of Christ. Recognizing the similarity in sending
away the goat free into the wilderness for the sins of the people in
Lev 16, and the releasing of the cock as a substitute for the client
(sinner), to carry away sickness, misfortune or even the sins of a
person in the Naga tradition, Renthy suggested that John 1:29 should
be translated as: “Behold the Cock of God who takes away the sins
of the world”. While appreciating such creative and innovative way
of translating the Bible, it is to be noted that Renthy could not
explore this further neither in Bible translation nor in the actual
preaching of the church.31
Wati
Longchar also refers to Christ in his theology of land but the
discussion on Christ is one-sided. As for example, in an article, he
rejects the Christ of personalism. He asserts:
Since God
is an integral part of creation, God suffers pain when creation
suffers, because tribals conceive God as one who comes out from the
soil (but not from above)….We are challenged to see Christ as the
incarnate one who is organically related to the total eco-system.
Jesus shares his being with the whole created order. Since Jesus
Christ is an integral part of creation, all parts of creation are now
reconciled to Christ. It rejects Christ of personalism….The event
of Jesus Christ thus re-established the reality of ‘space’.32
Wati
is right when he says that Christ as the incarnate one is organically
related to the total eco-system. The danger is in emphasizing only
the created order where Jesus shares his being to the extent that
Christ’s work on the cross of Calvary for the whole of humanity is
forgotten. The Bible is holistic in its approach to the salvation of
the whole world which includes both the created world and humanity in
its depraved or degenerate condition. It is both universal and
personal in scope.
I
would like to refer to three Christological Studies done by tribal
theologians. A review of these three Christologies has been done by
David Blah recently. 33
First, Bendangla Longkumer 34
in her article on ‘Weaving
Christology from Tribal Women Perspective: An Ao-Naga Reading’
in Journal of Tribal
Studies vol. 15, no. 2
of 2010, attempts to formulate a tribal Christology from the women’s
perspective. Her focus is on the understanding of Arasentsur,
an Ao-Naga women shaman as the working model.35
An
Arasentner
(‘arasentsur’
being feminine and
‘arasentner’
masculine) is a social functionary who, with the help of a guardian
spirits, attains ecstasy to create a rapport with the supernatural
world on behalf of her/his group members. And as a social
functionary, Arasentsur
is defined not merely by extraordinary personal abilities to achieve
ecstasy, communicates with spirits, or affect the healing of
individuals but also a public capacity to mediate between a
transcendent reality and a particular social group, and also to act
as intercessors and counselors within the group. Thus Arasentner
is a medium which
helps human enter into relationship with the spirit world, nature and
among human community, and were also well respected and honored by
everyone in the community. It is noteworthy that they are also the
specialist in the use of herbal medicines as revealed to them by the
spirit and so they are medicine women, doctors and healers.
Basing
on this tradition of the Arasentsur
the tribal’s women’s image of Jesus could be meaningfully
developed and understood, and from this Longkumer draws out one point
of theological reflection:
Jesus as Arasentsur heals-
One of the prominent features in the ministry of Jesus is healing of
the people with different sickness, which affects not only the
individual’s body, mind and soul, but it re/establishes their
relationship with God, their community and the environment around
them- thus a holistic healing. In the same way the Arasentsur’s
healing of the sick is also a holistic reconciliation and restoration
of the individual with the spirits, the socio-religious customs and
the others within the community. The faith-based healing of Jesus is
comparable to the trust-obedient-based healing of the Arasentsur.
The second study is a
Christological exploration by me in 1998.36
I have tried to articulate a contextual tribal Christology from the
Ao-Naga’s
folktale tradition of the ‘Lijaba
and the two sisters’.
The story is about two poor orphan sisters, who was orphaned by their
step-mother and their father, who lived in the outskirts of a village
in a small hut. On one night Lijaba-
who is believed to be the creator of the world and the God of the
fields and who disguises himself when he comes to each and every
village annually so as to bless his people- came, in the form of a
beggar, and knock on all of the villager’s doors for a night’s
rest but all of them refused him say that they did not have any room
to spare or something else. Finally he came to the two sisters’
house. Though not having much they invited him in. He prepared the
supper that night for them all and later blessed their small field
with harvest and cursed all the others. Only later the rest of the
villagers, on seeing what had happened realized that it was Lijaba
who had visited them that night.
The
social setting of the tale and the actions of Lijaba,
are important for today. When one compares the Lijaba
tradition with the Gospel accounts of Jesus teachings and ministry
such as the parable of the sheep and Goats in Matthew 25:31-46; the
parable of the Choice of Guest in Luke 14:12-14; the parable of the
great banquet in Luke 14:15-24, and; the encounter of Jesus with the
Samaritan Woman in John 4:1-28- three points can be laid down for
theological reflection:
a. Jesus
as Lijaba co-suffers with the poor-
Jesus takes an option for the poor in order to suffer for them and
to dwell with them. Takatemjen says that because the tribals are
suffering from oppression the Christological importance must be
found in this reality of suffering with the marginalized, or else
Jesus will have no significance to them. To call Jesus as Lijaba
is to meaningfully communicate that He is suffering together with
the marginalized Nagas,
and it is the most appropriate symbolism of this identification.
b. Jesus
as Lijaba liberates the Oppressed-
Jesus as Lijaba
offers the hope of freedom to the outcaste of the lands as the
heaven to which Christ is leading the poor and the oppressed is a
kingdom in this world where justice, food and life prevail. Lijaba
not only recognized with the poor but in the midst of the sisters’
poverty and shame as being the outcaste of the village he blessed
them and his blessing is seen as a liberational act as it was the
outcaste and not the main villagers who was worthy to receive it. A
Christology for today for the Nagas should not be devoid of a
liberating praxis but it must be strong enough to liberate them from
everything that enslaves, whether they are socio-economic, political
or spiritual forces.
Thirdly,
Hemhochon Chongloi also did a Christological study in his book37
Indoi:
A study of Primal Kuki Religious Symbolism in the Hermeneutical
Framework of Mircea Eliade. He
articulates the relationship between Indoi
symbolism and Kuki Christology and
utilizes the concept of Pathen
in bringing out a certain aspect of Kuki Christology. For him, Kuki
religiosity can be condensed in the institution of Indoi.
Pathen
in the primal Kuki religious world is understood as the creator,
sustainer of all in the universe, and just like the Brahman of
Sankara who is also unavailable and remote. The remoteness of Pathen
is overcome through the instrumentality of creation, every object-
animals, vegetations, and inanimate objects- being potential
hierophany.38
But it is the institution of Indoi
that the concept ‘became concretized’. The Indoi
symbolizes the manifestation, revelation and accessibility of the
sacred, and the immanence of Pathen.
In as much as Indoi
is hung in every household the presence of Pathen
is assured for every individual person. Thus the Indoi-Pathen
relationship
functions just like
the Christ-God
relationship whereby
through the incarnation, God becomes Immanuel through Christ. Just as
the whole Christ-event has become a living experience of God in
Christ, the institution of Indoi
has become a prolongation of the sacred manifest in the material
objects that constituted it.
David
Blah observes that, Chonhloi’s Indoi-Pathen
similarity with Christ-God
is peculiar and explicit, whereas for Bendangla Longkumer’s Jesus
as Arasentsur, the
similarity is not so explicit and the parallel is read into the
tradition. However, this little variation in the traditions is of
little importance to the Tribal theologians as their primary aim is
to develop a particular Christology from their own tribal heritages.39
According to David, in the Christology of Takatemjen, a more
developed and properly formulated Christology can be seen which is
both synthetic and praxis, thus providing a Christology that is not
only ‘dressed’ in one’s own culture but also providing the
basis for liberative actions. 40
However, the Christologies of the other two are still lacking in this
respect. Though, methodologically, they have synthesized the
understanding of Christ but yet they have not properly developed any
liberative implications. 41
In
another study, Johnson Thomaskutty, a faculty of Union Biblical
Seminary, Pune, critically assess the interpretations of Jesus by
Yangkahao Vashum. He observes that the interpretation of the rooster
as a representative of Jesus in the Northeast context fails to locate
the ontological significance of Jesus’ vicarious death in
comparison to the local phenomenon of the rooster sacrifice. He
asserts that there is a danger in matching Jesus and rooster in
synonymous terms.42
The comments made by David Blah and Johnson Thomaskutty need to be
given some serious reflections by tribal Christology scholars, not
only for the study of Christology but also for other Tribal studies
so that methodologically our articulation will be right but not
haphazard.
Methodology
Some
methodologies employed by tribal theologians for doing tribal
theology are mentioned briefly in this section. K. Thanzauva and
L.H. Lalpekhlua suggest a synthetic-Praxis model. By this they mean a
combination of two models, namely, the synthetic model, and the
praxis model. Synthetic model has to do with the combination of the
teachings of Gospel and the tribal traditions- and the praxis model
refers to the formulation of right actions for the
transformation/liberation of the people. Thanzauva opines that the
“combination of the two is necessary in a society like ours,
suffering as it does from a crisis of identity, at the same time
struggling for liberation from all forms of alienation.”43
Mention
can be made of several studies that combines the synthetic model and
praxis model: Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu’s articles in Nagas:
Essays for Responsible Change
employs this methodology. The articles are: “De-masculinizing God:
Reclaiming the Inclusive Meaning of God in Tribal Tradition”;
“Women’s Experience of ‘Sorrow’: Ending the Saga of
‘Headhunting’”; “Resources from Naga Tradition and Religion
for Building Communities of Peace and Justice” ; “Naga Women’s
spirituality toward Wholesome Theological Angthropology”.
Several women theologians have
taken a feminist approach and started writing in Northeast India for
liberation of women from various kinds of bondage. R.L.Hnuni
criticizes the present church structure which have deprived women of
equal participation in the church. She opines that a
re-interpretation of the Bible is necessary in order to bring a
change in the mindset of the church.44
Eyingbeni asserts that the idea of female inferiority is advocated by
wrong interpretation of Bible and Theology which is also compounded
by the Naga traditional attitude of valuing the male more than the
female. This has resulted in dividing humanity into two separate,
irreconcilable parts: that of female and male. She points out four
levels of equality between the genders from the perspective of
theo-biblical anthropology, namely, equal in being; equal in status
and responsibility; equal in sin and equal in redemption.45
Most
women writers in Northeast India have turned to the Bible for dealing
with the issue of oppression of women by the patriarchal Naga
society, for the simple reason that in order to tackle the problem of
discrimination in the tribal society, traditional material is very
scanty to support the case for women in terms of emancipating them.
Wati
Longchar articulates a methodological shift from the human-centric to
a creation-centric methodological approach in articulating a tribal
theology of creation, especially the land,
as it is the foundation of history, existence and identity- for it
not only “sustains and nourishes all beings…[but]…gives them an
identity and selfhood”46
and thus should not be sidelined.
Apart
from the examples given above there are other models of doing
contextual theology which are equally useful. Many times it is not
possible to classify the approaches rigidly. The models often
overlapped one another.47
At the present juncture in the history of development of tribal
theology, I am convinced that the “synthetic-Praxis” model will
be more useful and effective. By ‘synthesis’ we mean a
combination of gospel and the tribal cultural traditions. The end
result of such a ‘synthesis’ will be a contextual theology that
will be intelligible to the people. As theologians our concern is not
just producing an armchair theology that will have no relevance for
the people. What we write should transform our church and the society
at large. And therefore we must emphasize ‘praxis’ in our
theologizing. When we pray the Lord’s prayer saying ‘Thy Kingdom
Come’, ‘Thy will be done on earth’, are we not praying for the
kingdom’s values, justice, peace, wholeness, shalom and salvation
to come to a world where there is so much of brokenness? Our theology
should be also praxis -oriented.
Conclusion:
Christianity
in the Northeast India is about 180 years old. Soon after the arrival
of the missions, the tribals in the Northeast India were taught the
three R’s: Writing, Reading and Remembering. Mrs Mary Mead, one of
the first teachers in the Naga Hills taught her pupils to write with
fingers on the sandy soil, then using sticks to write on banana
leaves at Molungyimsen about 140 years ago. The open air classes were
conducted for the purpose of helping the natives to read the Bible.
Since then, Christians in the Northeast India have walked a long way:
from learning to learn the Bible on Sundays, they went on to learn
more about it during Bible Class held three to four times in a year
in the mission centres. And then, Bible Schools and later Theological
Colleges were established in the region for the purpose of ‘Reading
the Bible.’ After about 180 years of the establishment of
Christianity in the NEI, today we are talking of another R:
Re-Reading the Bible contextually. As noted above, earlier
theologians like Renthy Keitzar were concern about how to communicate
the gospel better by using tribal categories for the benefit of the
tribals. As a result, today we are talking about tribal theologies.
Re-reading
the Bible has become necessary and it is important for the life of
the churches in Northeast India. By re-reading it, the Bible will
become more relevant and more meaningful to us. The Bible should be
made to speak to our world today and it can be done only by
re-reading it. In re-reading the Bible we pay attention to the
context seriously and try to use our own traditions and cultural
resources for understanding a particular text more clearly. By
reading the Bible in this way, we can bring new understandings to the
word of God. But it is also true that reading the Bible together with
our cultural traditions can transform the tribal understanding of
Christ, our communities, and the socio-economic problems we are
facing today in the region,
The
proponents of tribal theology since the 70s have tried to use tribal
resources such as the oral traditions, folklore, stories and songs as
much as possible in developing a tribal theology in Northeast India.
The Theological fraternity in Northeast India should be thankful to
them because in this process of theologizing we have come to
understand tribal cultures and their traditions with new eyes and
with depth. All Christian theologies have a basis in the written
word, the Bible. As John Macquarrie has said: “…any theology
which claims to be Christian theology… must maintain close and
positive relation with the Bible”.48
In this regard, we need to learn from the Dalit theologians and also
from the Liberation theologians, who were convinced about their call
and praxis from
a reading of the Bible. In all theological reflections, the Bible has
played a very important role in the past. And today we must pay
attention all the more to read the Bible in theologizing. All our
theologizing should be balanced in the sense that while giving
attention to the readings of the tribal traditions, it is equally
important to refer to the Bible as a source also for understanding
tribal culture and traditions in a new way.
It is because of such concerns that a few biblical scholars gathered together at different times and discussed the need of having a biblical scholars society in Northeast India (NEISBS) which was formally approved by the general body meeting held at Clark Theological College in May 2014. It is thought that such a society will be able to contribute and complement the developing tribal theological discussions more deeply and more meaningfully. The theological task before us is tremendous and a useful enterprise. I have tried to lay bare some of the issues and concerns in doing tribal theology today. I do not have all the answers to all the questions raised. It is for all Tribal theologians to approach the problems unitedly keeping in view the needs of the church and society whom we serve. Tribal theology have come a long way and we have a long way to go. The future of this enterprise depends on how we walk. In order to walk long, we need to walk together.
Select
Bibliography on Tribal Theology
Alem,
O. Tsungremology: An
Ao Naga Christian Theology.
Mokokchung: CTC, 1994.
Basumatary,
Songram, (edited by Richard Bonney) Ethnicity
and Tribal Theology Problems and Prospects for Peaceful Co-existence
in Northeast India
. Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Wien,
2014
Chungi,
Hrangthan, Raj Bharath Patta, P.Mohan Larbeer. Building
Theologies of Solidarity: Interfacing Feminist Theology with Dalit
and Tribal/Adivasi Theologies.
Bangalore: BTESSC/NCCI/SCMI, 2012.
Chungi,
Hrangthan, edited. Theologizing
Tribal Heritage: A Critical Re-look.
Delhi: CWM/ISET-ECC/PCI/ISPCK, 2008.
Hnuni,
R.
L, edited.
Transforming Theology for Empowering Women: A Theological and
Hermeneutical Reflection in the Context of North East India.
Tribal Study Series No. 4. Jorhat: Women Studies Eastern Theological
College, 1999.
Humtsoe-Nienu,
Eyingbeni. God
of the Tribes: Christian Perspective on the Naga Ancestral Idea of
the Supreme Being.
Mokokchung: CTC, 2014.
Imchen,
Narola, edited. Tribal
Women and Globalization.
Women Study Series No. 5. Jorhat: WSCETC, 2008.
Imsong,
Mar. God-Land-People:
An Ethnic Naga Identity.
Dimapur: Heritage Publishing House, 2009.
Jamir,
M. Sashi, “Inductive Bible Study: Contextual Appropriation in
Northeast India” in The Asbury Theological Journal 68/1;42-45, 2013
Keitzar,
Renthy (ed) In
Search of a Relevant Gospel Message.
Guwahati: Christian Literature Centre, 1995.
Keitzar,
Renthy, (ed) Good
News for North East India.
Guwahati: CLC,1995.
Lalpekhlua,
L.H. Contextual
Christology: A Tribal Perspectives.
Noida: ISPCK, 2007.
Lasetso,
Razouselie and Yankahao Vashum, eds.
Tribal Christian Theology: Methods and Sources for Constructing a
Relevant Theology for the Indigenous People of North East India.
Tribal Study Series No. 15. Jorhat: ETC Program Coordination, 2007.
Lasetso,
Razouselie and Eyingbeni Humtsoe, eds. Doing
Tribal Christian Theology with Tribal Resources: Cultural Resources
from North East India.
Jorhat: ETC Programme Coordination, 2009.
Lemtur,
Zulunungsang. Climate
Refugees: Towards a Tribal Christian Theology of Restoration.
Mokokchung: Tribal Development and Communication Centre, 2015.
Longchar,
A. Wati. Tribal
Religious Traditions in North East India: An Introduction.
Jorhat: The Author, 2000.
Longchar,
Wati.
Returning to Mother Earth: Theology, Christian Witness and
Theological Education An Indigenous Perspective. Kolkatta:
PTCA/SCEPTRE, 2012.
Longkumer,
Limatula, edited. No
More Sorrow in God's Garden of Justice.
Women Study Series No. women Study Series No 4. Jorhat: WSCETC, 2007.
Massey,
James and Shimreingam Shimray.
Dalit-Tribal Theological Interface: Current Trends in Subaltern
Theologies.
Noida: TSC/WSC & CDS, 2007.
Pangernungba,
“Land Being
and Ali-Rongsen (Cultural-political
Economy): An Ao-Naga Perspective,” in Restoration
and Preservation of Ecological Values in the Tribal North East India,
157-95 (Tribal Study Center, Eastern Theological College & United
Board for Higher Christian Education in Asia, Hong Kong: Jorhat,
2012).
Shimray,
Shimreingam, edited. In Tribal
Theology: A Reader.
Tribal Study Series No.12. Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2003.
Soto,
S. Liango. Tribal
Theology of Integral Humanhood: A Resource from Shamanism of the
Nagas.
Delhi: ISPCK, 2011.
Takatemjen,
Studies
on Theology and Naga Culture.
New Delhi, ISPCK, 1998.
Takatemjen
(ed) Bible
Readings from the Northeast India Context,
Mokokchung, CTC/NEISBS, 2014
Thanzauva,
K. Theology
of Community.
Aizwal: Mizo Theological Conference, 1997.
Thanzauva,
K. Transforming
Theology: A Theological Basis for Social Transformation.
Bangalore: ATC, 2002.
Thomaskutty,
Johnson, “Reading Jesus Paradigmatically into the Northeastern
Indian Tribal Context” in New
Testament Scholarship Worldwide.
See https:// ntscholarship.wordpress.com/2012/02/27/ reading Jesus
paradigmatically into the northeastern Indian tribal context/
Vashum,
Yangkhao, edited. Tribal
Theology and the Bible: A Search for Contextual Relevance.
Tribal Study Series No. 19. Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2011.
Vashum,
Yanghao, edited. Tribal
Theology: A Search for Quality education & Relevant Ministry.
Tribal Study Series No. 17. Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2009.
Visakoulie,
Vakha, “ Jesus Christ in Tribal Theology: A Critique” in
Perspectives:
Current Issues in Theological Thinking,
Mokokchung, Clark Theological College, 2002
1
From around 1970s theses and studies on Naga Cultural Traditions
were beginning to appear which have a bearing on Tribal Theology,
e.g. T.A.Shishak, Higher Education for Nagaland (Unpublished Ph.D
Thesis. University of New York, 1973); Takatemjen, Utilising the
Morung for Revitilising Naga Youth (Unpublished B.D. Thesis. Union
Biblical Seminary, Yavatmal, 1976);
2
Renthy Keitzar, In Search of a Relevant Message (Guwahati,
Christian Literature Centre, 1995) p.66-71
3
Ibid., p.1
4
Ibid., p63-64
5
Ibid.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid., p.24-25
8
Ibid., p.70
9
Ibid., p.74, 80; See also Renthy Keitzar (ed.) Good News
for Northeast India: A Theological Reader (Guwahati. Christian
Lierature Centre, 1995), p.34f.
10
Renthy, In Search of a Relevant Message, Ibid.,
p.42-43
11
Ibid.,p.43
12
Ibid., p.42
13
Renthy , Good News, op.cit., p.37
14
Ibid. p.34
15
O.Alem Ao, Tsungremology (Mokokchung, Clark Theological
College, 1994) p. vi
16
A.Wati Longchar, The Traditional Tribal Worldview and Modernity
( Jorhat, Eastern Theological College, 1995); See also Wati
Longchar, Returning to Mother Earth: Theology, Christian
Witness and Theological Education (PTCA/ SCEPTRE, 2012)
17
Ibid., p.173-74; See also Mar Imsong, God-Land-People:An
Ethnic Naga Identity, (Dimapur, Heritage Publishing House,
2011); Some other contributors to the development of Tribal
Theology include: Yangkahao Vashum, “Sources for Studying Tribal
Theological.” In Tribal Theology: A Reader. Shimreingam
Shimray, (ed.) Tribal Study Series no. 12. Jorhat, Tribal Study
Centre, Eastern Theological College, 2003, pp 67-68; A. Wati
Longchar and Larry E. Davis eds. Doing Theology with Tribal
Resources: Context and Perspective. Jorhat, Tribal Study Centre,
Eastern Theological College 1999.
18
K.Thanzauva, Theology of Community : Tribal Theology in
the Making (Research and Development of Academy of Christian
Studies, Aizawl, 2004)
19
K. Thanzauva, “Issues in Tribal Theology,” in Tribal
Theology: A Reader. Op.cit., p. 17
20
K.Thanzauva, Theology of Community. Op.cit., p.83
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid., p.84
24
Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberation_theology.
Liberation Theology developed as a Christian response to the
conditions of poverty in Latin America during 1950s to1960s. It
reacted to the poverty caused by social injustice in that region. It
interpreted the teachings of Jesus Christ especially the Gospel of
Luke in relation to a liberation from unjust economic, political or
social conditions. The context of the poor such as their suffering,
their struggle and hope was the stating point for critiquing the
society and of the Catholic faith and Christianity as a whole.
Gustavo Gutierrez wrote one of the most famous books of the
movement, A
Theology of Liberation.
Other
noteworthy proponents are Leonardo Boff of Brazil, Jon Sobrino of
Spain, and Juan Luis Segundo of Uruguay.
Dalit
theology is
a branch of Christian theology that
emerged among the Dalit caste in India in
the 1980s. It shares a number of themes with liberation
theology, which arose two decades earlier, including a
self-identity as a people undergoing Exodus.
Dalit theology sees hope in the "Nazareth Manifesto"
of Luke 4, where Jesus speaks
of preaching "good news to the poor ... freedom for the
prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind" and of releasing
"the oppressed”.
A
major proponent of Dalit theology was Arvind
P. Nirmal (1936–95), a Dalit
Christian in the Church
of North India. Nirmal criticised Brahminic dominance
of Christian theology in India, and believed that the application of
liberation theology to India should reflect the struggle of
Dalits, who make up about 70% of Christians in India, as
claimed by Poor Christian Liberation Movement (PCLM). Nirmal
also criticised the Marxist element
within South
American
liberation
theology. Nirmal drew on the concept of the Suffering
Servant in Isaiah 53 to
identify Jesus himself
as a Dalit – "a waiter, a dhobi,
and bhangi."
Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit_theology.
25
Yangkahao Vashum
“Sources
for Studying Tribal Theology,” Tribal
Theology: A Reader,
67-76.
26
Renthy, In
Search, op.cit.,
p.78
27
See also Rosiamliana Tochhawng, who also raises certain problems and
dangers that might arise in doing tribal theology: (a) there is a
danger of becoming selective from the Gospel and culture; (b) there
is a danger of romanticizing the tribal worldview in an attempt to
rediscover liberative motifs in tribal culture; and (c) how far
these liberative motifs can be rediscovered and re-lived in the
post-modern era. [Rosiamliana Tochhawng, “Methodological
reflection on Theologizing Tribal Heritage in North East India,”
Theologizing Tribal Heritage: A Critical Re-Look¸ 26-27.]
28
Ibid., p.77
29
Ibid., p.121
30
Ibid., p.23
31
Ibid., p.24-25
32
Wati Longchar, Journal of Tribal Studies, Vol V, No.I
(January –June, 2001) p.13
33
Please see, David Blah, “Tribal Christology” htpps:// www.
Academia.edu for a review of these Chrostologies.
34
See Bendanglemla Longkumer, “Weaving Christology from Tribal Women
Perspective: An Ao-Naga Reading,” Journal of Tribal Studies:
Vol 15. No 2 (July-December, 2010) pp. 29-45.
35
David Blah, “Tribal Christology” htpps://www.academia. edu
36
See Takatemjen, Studies on Theology and Naga Culture (Delhi/
Mokochung: ISPCK/ CTC, Aolijen, 1998), 55-68.
37
See Hemkhochon Chongloi, Indoi: A study of Primal Kuki Religious
Symbolism in the Hermeneutical Framework of Mircea Eliade
(Delhi: ISPCK, 2008), 284-287. Originally a doctoral thesis titled
‘A Historical-Phenomenological Study of Primal Kuki Religious
Symbolism with special reference to Indoi in the Framework of Mircea
Eliade’s Interpretation of Religious Symbolism’ which was
submitted to the Senate of Serampore College in 2004.
38
From the two Greek words- Hieros meaning ‘sacred’ and
Phainein meaning ‘to show’
39
David Blah, “Tribal Christology” htpps://www.academia.edu
40
Please see David Blah, “Tribal Christology”
htpps://www.academis.edu
41
Ibid.
42
See Thomaskutty,
Johnson, “Reading Jesus Paradigmatically into the Northeastern
Indian Tribal Context” in New
Testament Scholarship Worldwide.
See https:// ntscholarship.wordpress.com/2012/02/27/ reading Jesus
paradigmatically into the northeastern indian tribal context/
43
Thanzauva, Tribal Theology: A Reader, 19. However Rosiamliana
Tochhawng, a professor of Theology in Aizawl Theological College,
raises certain problems and dangers that might arise in this
methodology: (a) there is a danger of becoming selective from the
Gospel and culture; (b) there is a danger of romanticizing the
tribal worldview in an attempt to rediscover liberative motifs in
tribal culture; and (c) how far these liberative motifs can me
rediscovered and re-lived in the post-modern era. [Rosiamliana
Tochhawng, “Methodological reflection on Theologizing Tribal
Heritage in North East India,” Theologizing Tribal Heritage: A
Critical Re-Look¸ 26-27.]
44
R.L.Hnuni, “Women in the Context of the Bible and Mizoram”,
Towards a Tribal Theology: The Mizo Perspective, Edited by K.
Thanzauva (Aizawl: Mizo Theological Conference, 1989) pp. 72-79
45 Eyingbeni
Humtsoe-Nienu, “Naga Women’s spirituality toward Wholesome
Theological Angthropology” in Nagas: Essays for Responsible Change
(Dimapur: Heritage Publishing House,2012) pp.93-105; See also
Eyingbeni Humtsoe-Nienu, God
of the Tribes: Christian Perspectives on the Naga Ancestral Idea of
the Supreme Being
(Clark Theological College, Mokokchung, 2014)
46
Wati Longchar, “Indigenous People’s Theologies in Asia: Methods
and Perspectives,” Issues
in Theological Research: A Methodological Exploration,
edited by Wati Longchar (Bangalore: BTESSC/ SATHRI, 2010), 160.
(147-169)
47
K. Thanzauva, Community,
op.cit.,
p.84
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