Tribal Ethics: Tlawngaihna,Sobaliba,Khankho

Introduction

In this paper we will be bringing out the understanding of twalmngaihna in Mizo, Sobaliba in Naga, Khankho in Kuki and we also describe their understanding of the various prespectives, characteristics and practices of each of them in details.

Tribal Ethics

K.Thanzauva writes, 'culture is defined as the sum total of the original solution that a group of human invent to adapt to their natural and social environment. It develops out of human beings encounter with the nature and the environment, when they adapt certain features in order to meet their needs and to solve their problems and to live within the demands, restrain and the potentials of the environment.'

1.Tlawmngaihna (Mizo)

1.1 Meaning of Tlawmngaihna

Tlawmngaihna is Mizo term which literally means self-sacrifice for other which is in need. Here the emphasis is on a denial of self rather than an effort to be independent. The purpose of this self- denial is to serve the community and any person in the community who are really in need of help. It is an act of charity where in self-interest is subordinate to the interest of community, and the self -sacrifices for the need of other is to come in spontaneously as a natural part of one’s life. Without the principal of Tlawmngaihna a communitarian society cannot function. without the principle of Tlawmngaihna it would not be possible to build a harmonious society where member of the community practiced decision by consensus sharing their joy and sorrow and caring one another. The capitalistic as well as the modern communist system do not have this kind of basis on which to build community. For tribal society, such a basis is provided by Tlawmngaihna. P.L. Lianzuala in his article “ Towards a theology of Mizo Tlawmngaihna “ argue that Tlwmngaihna was created by social necessity in the Mizo society: he also the observation that while a number of Mizo cultural practice were annulled in the process of change by the other culture.[1]

Several attempts have been made to define Tlawmngaihna, both Mizos and themselves and the non- Mizos who know the Mizo culture. Definition though it cannot be avoided, is often misleading and inadequate to explain accurately complex concept and practices. The problem of defining and translating Tlawmngaihna in to English is clearly reflected by the many vocabularies and phrases employed by J.H Lorrain who tried to explain Talwmgaihna as a) To be self –sacrificing ,unselfish ,selfish-denying ,persevering ,stoical, stout-hearted ,plucky ,brave, firm, independent, loath to lose one’s good reputation, prestige, too proud or self-respecting to give in ,etc. b) To put one’s own inclination on one side and do things which one would rather not do, with the object either of keeping up one’s prestige or of helping or pleasing another or of not disappointing another etc.[2]

1.2 Etymology

Tlawmngaihna is the social principle as well as the norm for good conduct of the people in the community. The tribal moral ethos is based on good deed for the welfare of the community. on putting the interest of the community above one’s own individual interest. Therefore, the tribal in their judgment of conduct would say, it is shameful rather than sayings, it is wrong. Doing anything that the society does not accept, whether wrong or right is shameful. Parents prevent children doings certain things not necessarily because it is wrong to do them but shameful. In a society where community is placed above individuals, this kind of ethical judgment is inevitable .it is both moral and social.[3]

1.3 Concept

Though we uphold with honour the sprit and objectives of Tlawmngaihna, we need to point out that the principle of tlawmgaihan does have both positive and negative aspects. It is the Tlawmngaihna teaching of self –lessness which makes the Mizo people reserved, slow to express themselves even to extent of telling a lie. A starving Mizo is reluctant to tell his wants of food. Even a seriously sick patient, on the verge of death, well tells a doctor that he does not feel pain. The major weakness of Tlawmngaihna is lack of critical basis of assessment of its own action. Since it has been so much socializaed and people simply assume that what is expected in and by the social is right and good.[4]

Tlawmngaihna is bases on the principle of self –sacrifice. It is not merely a system of social control for equilibrium, as some sociologists have suggested. Social control implies seeking to contain individual or group resistance within tolerable limits. Since the principle of Tlawmngaihna prohibits criticism against other. Tlawmngaihm could be one the indirect cause of wild corruption in Mize society today. Rather than challenging the wrong structures and misdeed of rulers, the principle of avoids pointing out the wrong doing of others. Another weakness of tlwmngaihna is that its practice in the actual life is limited to those who understand the meaning of Tlwamngaihna. The Mizo who are exposed to other culture have realized that it is practicable only within the society where its understood and practiced by the people .first of all it begins in village community ,the expanded its circle to the larger Mizo society but rarely crossed beyond the boundary of Mizo society.[5]

2. Sobaliba (Nagas)

2.1 Meaning

Sobaliba is a moral code of the Ao Nagas. Morality for them is learned communal values that were life-enhancing. Thus it contributes to the common good. Community well-being is the essential philosophy that sustains the Naga community. Community is the first and foremost then comes an individual. Sobaliba is to guide them to live responsible and harmonious life. Sobaliba is practiced to value, respect and care for every human being. It is in fact, the essence of human beings. Its basic principle is characterized by integrity, respect, compassion, simplicity, hard work, and selflessness. These characteristics understood responsible living, appreciation and valuing of the interconnected nature of human beings to each other and to the non-human creation.[6]

2.2 Concept

Sobaliba is an indigenous moral code to guide people in Nagaland to responsible and harmonious living. A society that practiced Sobaliba valued, respected, and cared for every human being. Naga believed that each part of God’s creation was interconnected and interdependent on each other for survival and growth. Hence, they lived in harmony with all living beings and cared for all guided by a strong moral code called Sobaliba. Sobalibais an Ao term. Each tribe has its own version of the moral code known by their distinct tribal term but similar in essence to Sobaliba.[7]

2.3 Sobaliba Practices[8]

 To be generous, hospitable to the needy, the poor, the aged anfd the stranger

 To honor and respect everyone

 To be unselfish with food and materials that nature provides

 To share land with the landless

 To speak the truth

 Avoid false witness

 Not to steal, cheat or rob

 Not to seek position, power or self -glory

 Protect and defend the community from harm

 To raise children of Sobaliba

 To work hard

 Learn traditional crafts

 To have pride in dignity of labor

 To observe the norms and rules of the community

 To care for the earth and everything in it

 Not to kill or torture any living beings

 Participation in community work.

Sobaliba is the basic code existence for the Ao Nagas through the ages in their relationship with others and the nature. It guides the people on the right path.[9]

2.4 Analysis

Sobaliba has a positive influence towards Christians. Wati Longchar commented, “The value of self –sacrifice produced many selfless preachers”. The gospel was preached all over the villages where many became Christians. The practice of sobaliba contributed to spread of Christianity among Nagas. The other practices also are in line with biblical teachings. However, the question arises is how far sonbaliba is practices and follow by Christians till this day. Today, the community is deteriorating where violence, hatred is seen.[10]

3. Khankho

3.1 Definition of Khankho:

There is no English word equivalent for Khankho, so at best it need to be describe or define. Its etymology is Khan= ‘grow’ ‘develop’ and Kho= ‘Vilage’ ‘lifetime’ etc. when the two words are integrated into one words the results meaning undergoes a change, surpassing the meanings in their separate entities and indicate a ‘principle of life’ or ‘a way of life’. Or ‘the way a person is expected to live’.[11] Traditionally, khankho refers to the growth in love, care and concern of socio-political, economic, religion and educational that nurtures human community for the wholeness of the Kuki people in village, town or cities. Khankho is not only and act but a duty to response, to transform, and to establish Kuki humanity with love, concern and sacrifice for growth, prosperity, integrity and fratermity.[12] Thus Khankho refers not to a mere intellectual knowledge or an act of performing duties towards others, but rather it is about the ‘being’ or a person who she or he is.[13]

3.2 The practice of Khankho.

3.2.1 Upa- Naopa Relationship.

Upa means older brother or senior clan, and Naop, yonger or Junior clan. This relationship works not just for a family but also for the village, the clan and the whole tribe. Upa not only enjoys the privilege of the hereditary headship of the family, but also has the responsibility for the wellbeing of his younger brothers and all his sisters. He represents the family or clansmen in important occasions such as ritual ceremonies and traditional courts.[14] The same principle of relationship is applied in the socio-political relationship between clans, vilages and the tribe. There is upa of a family, upa of a clan, and upa of the whole tribe and it goes on to their cognate tribes. This relationship instil among the people an atmosphere of brotherhood and a sense of responsibility toward each other favouring the principles of Khankho. In this way the kukis were able to overcome discrimination and justice within the society to a large extend.[15]

3.2.2 Tucha – Becha relationship

Tucha-Becha relationship is a horizontal relationship and it leaves no one excluded from the relationship. Tarun Goswami speaks of Becha and Tucha as “the friends, Philosophers and guides of the Kuki families”.[16] Becha is a term used to refer to a person who is nominated by a family to act as the main responsible person and spokesman on behalf of the family. This is a special relationship instituted between a family and a Becha. Observing the importance of his role and status Goswami writes. “The Becha performs the Job of a general manager of the family shouldering the managerial responsibilities in all the social functions including liaison work of the family. Without the Becha performance, any Kuki social functions unthinkable. During the feasting, which is an integral part of a Kuki family, Benu’s(the wife of Becha) main role is to cook rice while the Becha serves as the head of the family in consultation with the family concerned.[17]

3.2.3 Sunggao Relationship

The term sunggao refers to the members of the family or clan from which the wife comes. They are called pu or pute, and they in turn call their nephews, tu or tute. The sunggaos enjoy the respect and high regard and accordingly, their role is also different. They are not directly involved with the affairs of the family but are more of observers and they make their presence felt. The recognition of their status as Pu or Sunggao is shown by giving a neck portion of hunted meat and they return give their nephew or Tu a chicken. In this way they formed a closely knitted community.[18]

3.3 Critique

Culture is behavior by which an individual is identified as a specific group of people. It is also the social heritage and customary way by which groups organize their way of behaving, thinking and feeling. The Kuki’s have a very distinct culture and a Kuki cannot be isolated from the practice of customary laws. The whole laws or ethical principles of the Kuki’s evolved around the system of Khankho by which a Kuki is bound of both his social and political obligations in a society. The real meaning behind of all various laws there is love, care and concern about the well-being of villagers.

4.The Garo (A.chik)

The tribe is known to outsiders as Garos while Garos prefer to address themselves A.chik mande (A.chik means hill and mande means humankind). The Garos constitute a matrilineal society and has been divided into two ideally exogamous moieties (chatchi) viz. Sangma and Marak which are again subdivided into more exogamous clans (Ma.chong) – Momin, Shira and Arengh are considered sub-clan constellations of the Sangma clan. According to Dr. Julius Marak, there are not much cultural differences among these sub-tribes though they are of different dialects users. They are Chisak, Matchi, Matabeng, Ampleng, Am.beng, Atong, Gara-Gan.ching, Chibok, Ruga, Me.gam. A.we.[19]

4.1 Traditional Religion

The non-Christian Garos known as songsareks who believe in the existence of a Supreme Being but they do not worship him by sacrificial offerings, believing him to be a benevolent spirit. He is Tatara-Rabuga, the creator at whose command Nostu-Nopantu and Matchi created in the world. The non-Christian Garos have numerous stories of creation and most of the stories resemble the Biblical version. According to them, in the beginning there was watery plain; darkness ruled over everything and land was invisible. The Tatara-Rabuga, the Chief Spirit of the Garo pantheon commanded Nostu-Nopantu to create the earth with a lump of clay brought by a beetle from under the water. Monkey was the first animal to be created land and humankind was the last product of creation. The non-Christian Garos believe in the exixtence of spirits which before reincarnation rest in abodes like Balpakram and Balsiram Hills. Sin is one’s life affects the form of reincarnation. The lowest form of reincarnation is to be born as an insect or plant and the greatest reincarnation is in the same Ma.chong.[20]

According to Dr. Milton, there are no written documents about ancestors’ worship among the Garos but we can learn from the erection of Kima or memorial posts with the food placed beside it order to show reverence for the dead spirit on its journey to the abode of spirits. Besides the individual sacrifices, religious ceremonies are performed by the entire village for protection from evil spirits. The fact that one observes bamboo shrines smeared with blood of animals, decorated with feathers, egg shells and cotton demonstrate that fear of evil spirits governs the life among non-Christian Garo.

However, with the emergence of Christianity in Garo Hills came as a direct threat to the traditional Garo region. In fact, the Christian religion came to reolace the traditional relgion while changes in other aspects of Garo culture came as corollary to it only. On the other hand, change in the religious system that is replacing the old traditional religion by Christianity, lots of changes in their physical appearances, habits and manner, their mental outlook, spiritual life and their attitudes to life and other fellow beings. They are also taught on personal cleanliness and decency as well. In a Garo traditional society both men and women kept long hairs but the Church insisted on cropping male hairs short. The Church taught them how to respect elders, teachers and other fellow beings. All these have created new mental outlook and new values among them.[21]

5. Impact of Christianity on the Bodos:

5.1 Identity of the bodos

The Bodos are identified with the following names: Bodo, Boro, Kachari and Mech Boro. Bodo means the first born or the first or the first inhabitant. The Bodos who lived in the valley of Mechi river in Nepal prior to their coming to India they used to identify themselves as Mech. They are also Bodos. After entering in India they dispersed in different areas in North East India. Some Mech Bodos are also still found in Koch Bihar and Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal.

The Bodo tribes have their own customs and traditions in a varied rich culture.

5.2 The Ancestral Religion of Bodos

The Bodos call God as Abong. Abong is their supreme God. Bathou is their chief diety from whom their religion is derived. So they called their religion as Bathou. Bathou is the ancestral religion. Literally Bathou means five deep mysteries or five elements of creation: earth, air, water, fire and ether. Bathou has several names, one of them is Kwira or Kwira Bwrai. According to a mythology the creation came into being when Kwira wedded to these five elements of creation. According to Bodo belief the Abong brought about the creation through Bathou. The belief of the Bodos in these five elements of creation is expressed in the following way: Sijou Gorongba(the cactus plant has five ridges), Thaigirni bikonga kongba(chalita fruit has 5 flakes), Sifungni gudunga gudungba( the flute has 5 holes), Bathouni Bandwa Bandwba(the altar of Bathou has 5 ties), the Bodo Bwraini khwtayabw fongba (the 5 words uttered by Bodo Bwrai ).

The Kerai is the main religious festival of the Bodos. This festival is derived from worshipping and propitiating Bathou. There are four kinds of Kerai worship: Dorson kerai, Umrao kerai, Phalo kerai and Noni kerai. Except Noni kerai other three kerai worships are social in nature and performed on specific occasions. This festival has given rise to rich music, dance, art and philosophy and bestowed civilization on the Bodos. Another important festival of Bodos is Bihu.

There are three kinds of Bihu: Bwisagu(spring festival), Mainao borainai(harvest festival) and Mainao sibinai(thanksgiving festival to Mainao). Of them Bwisagu is the main social festival and is observed in the new year month, i.e. in Bwisak. This festival is observed to invite Bardwi sikhla (the goddess of nature or the Spirit of nature to come with her all blessings: the rain, the bright sunshine, graceful winds etc, and brighten the face of the earth). The goddess comes with all her blessings and fills humans with boundless joy and happiness.

5.3 Socio culture of the Bodos before and after the coming of Christianity:

Before the coming of Christianity, the Bodos were animists. They used to sacrifice birds and animals to their Gods and Goddesses. Those who became Christians discarded the animist practices as the missionaries in general were not in favor of them. They had to discard even their indigenous musical instruments which were used in the worship of Gods and Goddesses. This isolated the Bodo Christians from the mainstream of life, and was an impediment to their evangelization.

5.4 The Hmars:

The Hmars are one of the tribes of North East India belonging to the Chin-Kuki-Mizo ethnic group.

Conclusion

The practice of ethics and moral values in all above communities reflected the one understanding of serving the community selflessly. The tribal ethics can be connected to Christ who came to this world to sacrifice oneself. Christ sacrificed oneself for the good of others, so that one may have life. Christ came to serve and not to be served (Mk 10:45). Doing good to others is the one essential thing to be Christian. Christ himself set an example of helping poor, the elderly, sinners to uplift them in the society. However, in society today the practices of the ethical/moral values is challenging. The tribal society and the church has forgotten the basic and profound teaching of moral values offers by their culture. Reflection on these good moral values is important in order to have peaceful, loving and harmonious community.

 

Bibliography

Hoakip Jangkholam. Can god save my village. Cumbria: Langham parternship,2014.

Longchar A. Wati. Interaction between Gospel and culture among Nagas. Jorhat: Trival Study Centre.

Nungshitula. The Naga Image of the Human Being. Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2001.

Puthenpurakal. J. Impact of Christianity on North East India. Shillong: Vendrame Institute Publications, 1996.

Thanzauva. The heology of community: Tribal theology in making. Guwahati:Labanya press,1997.

 

Webiliography

www.religiouseducation.net/rea2014/files/2014/07/RIG-McFayden-Narola.pdf

ww.kukiforum.com.understanding-stimulative-terms-in-kuki-society.

www.nagaforum.com ,

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[1] Thanzauva.The theology of community : Tribal Theology in Making(Guwahati:Labanya press,1997),121  

[2] Thanzauva.The theology of community…, 123.

[3] Thanzauva.The theology of community…, 123.

[4] Thanzauva.The theology of community…, 124.

[5] Thanzauva.The theology of community…, 124.

[6] Nungshitula, The Naga Image of the Human Being (Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2001). 54-55  

[7] https://religiouseducation.net/rea2014/files/2014/07/RIG-McFayden-Narola.pdf  

[8] A. Wati Longchar, Interaction between Gospel and culture among Nagas, (Jorhat: Trival Study Centre), 54  

[9] Narola Ao Mc Fayden, http://www.nagaforum.com.  

[10] Narola Ao Mc Fayden, http://www.nagaforum.com.  

[11] Henkhochon Chongloi, Indoi (Delhi:ISPCK,2008), 292. 

[12] http://kukiforum.com.understanding-stimulative-terms-in-kuki-society.  

[13] Jangkholam Hoakip, Can God Save My Village(Cumbria:Langham parternship,2014), 287.  

[14] Hoakip, Can God Save My Village…, 131.

[15] Hoakip, Can God Save My Village…, 132.

[16] Hoakip, Can God Save My Village…, 132.

[17] Hoakip, Can God Save My Village…, 133.

[18] Hoakip, Can God Save My Village…, 134.

[19] J. Puthenpurakal, ed., Impact of Christianity on North East India (Shillong: Vendrame Institute Publications, 1996), 3-4.  

[20] Puthenpurakal, ed., Impact of Christianity on North East India…, 251.

[21] Puthenpurakal, ed., Impact of Christianity on North East India…, 245.

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Search for Tribal Christology

Christology: Search for Tribal Christology. Why should or should not Christ be a Tribal?

1. Introduction

The search for Tribal Christology encompasses  varieties of Tribal norms and ways of lives. The quest for Tribal Christ is an epitome of today’s theological trend among the tribal theologian. On the other hand, there is a sharp ideology that there is no requisite elements of Christ to be a Tribal as well. This paper will shed light to Tribal Christology.

2. Definitions of the Terms

2.1 Definition of tribe

A tribe is a group of distinct people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated into the national society. Stephen Corry defines tribal people as those who "...have followed ways of life for many generations that are largely self-sufficient, and are clearly different from the mainstream and dominant society."

2.2. Tribal Christology

Vashum uses local/indigenous cultural categories to construct a Christology of culture and liberation. In order to develop tribal Christology, we need to know the tribal ethos. Tribal people have a strong sense of community. This sense of corporate identity is very strong among the tribals.

3. Why should Christ be a Tribal? - Presenting Jesus as a Tribal:

Presenting Jesus as a Tribal would help to show that biblical revelation and early Christian tradition have much in common with tribal cultural realities.

Presenting Jesus as a Tribal would mean that biblical symbols can be very appealing and meaningful to tribal cultures: Jesus as the Healer, the Liberator, the Compassionate Friend of the poor and the needy, the Good Samaritan, the Good Shepherd, etc.

Presenting Jesus as a Tribal will bring him to the tribal peoples as the fulfilment of the people‟s mythologies, folklore, stories, proverbs, festivals, etc.

Presenting Jesus as a Tribal will give more relevance to Christian faith among the tribal peoples when Jesus appears to them as their Primeval Ancestor, Tribal Chief, the Centre of their festivals and celebrations, the Guardian of Creation, the One who will never separate them from their land.

4. Christology from Naga perspective

4.1. Jesus as the Rooster: Christology from Naga perspective

Sacrificial system in the Naga society stands at the centre as a vibrant process between God-human-creation/world where each finds their mutual corporate and mutual existence. For them, sacrifice was reflected in terms of physical wellbeing, safety, a call for blessings in life, family, community, good harvest and salvation of the body here and now. In this context, Jesus‟ sacrifice could be a source to identify and to articulate a Christological figure of Jesus from a Naga Tribal perspective in their understanding of Rooster and its sacrifice. Rooster sacrifices in Naga tradition were connected in restoring peace, well-being and harmony of an individual or the community. The significance of Jesus and the Rooster sacrifice gives nuances in interpreting a new paradigm of sacrifice which is not based on attrition but for the wholeness of life. Jesus as the rooster gives a new approach in understanding God-human-world relationship and also in the understanding of salvation.

4.2. Jesus as Lijaba: Christology from Ao Naga’s perspective

Takatemjen in his book, “Studies on Theology and Naga Culture” articulates a contextual tribal Christology from the Ao Naga‟s folktale tradition of the „Lijaba and the two sisters‟. The story is about two poor orphan sisters who were expelled from their homes and lived in the outskirts of a village in a small hut.

4.3. Jesus as Lijaba co-suffers with the poor

Jesus as Lijaba comes to the poor to be identified with them in their sorrows. He takes an option for the poor in order to suffer for them and to dwell with them. He becomes a friend for the outcasts and the despised represented by the two sisters. Takatemjen says that because the tribals are suffering from oppression, the Christological importance must be found in this reality of suffering with the marginalized, or else Jesus‟ coming will have no significance to them.

4.3.1. Jesus as Lijaba liberates the Oppressed

Jesus as Lijaba offers the hope of freedom to the outcasts of their land as the heaven to which Christ is leading the poor and the oppressed is a kingdom in this world where justice, food and life prevail. A Christology for today for Nagas should not be devoid of a liberating praxis but it must be strong enough to liberate them from everything that enslaves them, whether they are socio-economic, political or spiritual.

4.3.2. Jesus as Mother

In the story, Lijaba is in the kitchen not in the fields. He comes right inside the house and keeps himself busy cooking a meal for the sisters. In Naga society generally it is women who cook. But here, the act of Lijaba reveals his attribute as a mother. Lijaba is motherly, loving, and caring. He is the one who vindicates the poor.

5. Christology from Kuki perspective

Hemkhochon Chongloi, In his book Indoi: A study of Primal Kuki Religious Symbolism in the Hermeneutical Framework of Mircea Eliade, articulates the relationship between Indoi symbolism and Kuki Christology and utilizes the concept of Pathen in bring out a certain aspect of Kuki Christology. Pathen in the primal Kuki religious world is understood as the creator, sustainer of all in the universe.

The similar figure of Christ is seen in the centre of primal Kuki religion, which is Indoi. It literally means „house magic‟ or „witchcraft‟, and is the name given to the deity of individual household. The Indoi symbolizes the manifestation, revelation and accessibility of the sacred, and the immanence of Pathen. The Indoi-Pathen relationship functions just like the Christ-God relationship whereby through the incarnation, God becomes Immanuel through Christ. In the writing of Kaigoulen Kipgen he argued, As Christ was the Immanuel of God to all mankind, Indoi was the Immanuel of a household of traditional Kuki family. Both Christ and Indoi become the means of blessing to the people or individuals.

6. Christology from Mizo perspective

According to Lalpekhula, Divinity of Christ has no problem with Mizo Christology. According to Thanzauva Jesus is seen as “Hope for better life”. In order for Jesus to be understood and confessed meaningfully in Mizoram, Christology must be interpreted in relation to Mizo culture and experience. Thus it can be applied to the understanding of the Mizo concept of “Pasaltha”.

6.1. Jesus as ‘Pasalṭha’ ’

Jesus is understood as “Pasalṭha” means “Brave”. Who fight against and conquer the evil spirit. Jesus Christ is perceived here as a “Pasalṭha” who bravely unto death against the powers of evil that divide and oppress human beings and the world. Renthy Keitzer says that the belief in the existence of evil spirits is real in Mizoram and Jesus Christ could be interpreted as “victor over sin”, “Conqueror of evil spirit”, and “Savior the Lord”. He said that Jesus Christ comes to us as “Christo victor” to liberate us from evil spirits, from the superstitious beliefs of Spiritism. The testimony of his followers revealed that Jesus Christ was active among poor and oppressed people, bravely fighting with in their struggle against the destructive forces of their lives.

6.2. Jesus as Pasalṭha-tlawmngai

Jesus not only brave, but also „Tlawmngai‟ meaning that He not only fought against evil powers and sacrificed His own life in the struggle, but also essentially was born into the world and lived in the world for others. The principle and practice of „tlawmngai‟ encompasses selfless service for others, humility, kindness, patience, honesty, hard work and trustworthiness. The ethical teachings of Christianity, which advocate doing good and helping others in need, refined the principle of „tlawmngai‟. Hence in Jesus Christ, the central figure of the Christian faith, that „tlawmngaiha‟ is mostly clearly expressed.

 7. Christology from Khasi perspective

7.1 Jesus as Cock

A cock Sacrifice is very Significant for those believers of the Khasi. It is believed to be the sacrifice of peace and reconciliation. It has a story which describes how a cock in the ancient days became a sacrificial victim for the sake of humankind and the whole world. Their belief and reason for cock became sacrificial item, the cock came out from the other world to rescue man and be a sacrificial victim for the good and welfare of man. The cock prefigures and symbolizes Jesus. He is the only one who is really brings true life, peace, harmony, righteousness, justice, truthfulness, right relationship with God, fellow human beings and fellow creatures. Moreover, Jesus is much more than the rooster or the cock. He is not only a sacrificial victim who mediates with God through signs and oracles, but he is himself divine and human.

8. Conclusion

Creation as a whole forms the basis of tribal identity. Their understanding of God and Christ therefore is just a reflection of their world view. Each group views Christ in their own unique and confined ways. In Christological formation, it is the context of the people that largely shapes the way Christology is articulated. Jesus is a creator, sustainer, healer, deliverer and savior whom they can easily relate with their traditional understanding of what is divine in relation to human beings and creation

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Tribal Ecclesiology

Tribal Ecclesiology: Construct a Tribal Ecclesiology and Suggest ways that might enrich Indian Christian Theology

1. Introduction

The origin of the church from the beginning of Christianity has a greater emphasis laid towards the understanding of the ecclesiology of the different groups of people around the world. This in relation to the Tribal Ecclesiology is again a unique source in order to find the theological basis of the Tribal church especially in the North East India. Here in this paper we will be focusing on tribal Situation in NE India with The Tribal Resources for Ecclesiology, we will be also see how to Construct

a Tribal Ecclesia and how Tribal Ecclesiology in enriching Indian Christian Theology.

2. Definition of the Terms

A. Tribal theology and its Perspectives

The Tribal theology is an emerging theology among the alienated minorities called to be the Tribal group/Tribals. It is more of a people’s theology born out of experiences of various forms of injustice and exploitation in the context of assertion for right and identity. It is a theology that attempts to express Christian faith in socio-cultural religious, traditional and liturgical though pattern of the people. It is more likely to be seen as contextual and a liberative form of theology which talks more briefly about the people from below whose voices have never been heard. Tribal theology therefore can be defined as a critical reflection of faith on the basis of people’s experiences and social realities.[1]

B. Ecclesiology

The term “Ecclesiology” covers both doctrine pertaining to the church and theological discussion of the nature, function, and structures of the church. The word “ecclesiology” comes from the Greek “ekklesia” and the word “logy” or logos which, which when combined, denotes a study of the “ekklesia” or the teachings, doctrines, and science about the church. Ecclesiology is the branch of Christian theology which systematically deals with the doctrine pertaining to the church, its origin, its nature, its role in mission, and its leadership. In short, ecclesiology seeks to express the understanding of the nature and function of the church in a coherent manner from biblical, historical-theological and systematic-contextual perspectives.[2]

3. Ecclesiology in the Biblical Traditions

3.1. Ekklesia in the Old Testament

The term ekklesia describes an assembly or a gathering of people together. In the Old Testament, the two words frequently used to denote an assembly are edah and qahal. The word edah has been used primarily in the Pentateuch which means “assembly, congregation, multitude, people and swarm”. The word qahal means “assembly, convocation and congregation”. In the Septuagint, the Greek word ekklesia is used to translate the Hebrew word qahal which has a much stronger religious undertone.[3]

The concept of People of God as assembly has its Old Testament roots in the gathering of Israel before the Lord at Mount Sinai. God brings his people into his presence that they might hear his voice and worship him. Standing in the assembly of the Lord, the people gain their identity as a community of God’s eternal assembly. The assembly at Sinai was succeeded by other covenant-making assemblies. In Deuteronomy, the account of the renewing of the covenant before the death of Moses is provided. David also convoked an assembly to secure the succession of Solomon (I Ch. 28:2). Jehoshaphat, Joash and Hezekiah summoned assemblies of covenant renewal (II Ch. 20:5, 23:3, 29:23-32, 30:2-25).[4]

The great assembly under Ezra and Nehemiah was gathered to hear the Word of God (Ne. 8). This assembly was regarded in later times as the prototypes of the synagogues. The law also required people to gather three times in a year at the appointed place of worship (Lv. 23). These were the festival assemblies- the Passover, Pentecost and the Feast of Tabernacles. The Israelites were a nation formed for worship, called to assemble in the courts of the Lord, and to praise together the name of the highest. (Exo. 19:6). However, when Israel failed in this priestly calling, God scattered the people in exile. But he did not forget his calling to a priestly nation, the prophets proclaimed a new assembly of the People of God which would come in the glorious future when God would manifest his presence. Isaiah pictures a great feast to which not only the remnant of Israel but also the remnant of the nations would be gathered in (Is 2:2-4, 25:6-8, 49:22, 66:18-21). Zachariah sees a New Jerusalem transformed into a holy city by the presence of the Lord (Zc 12:7-9, 13:1, 14:7, 16:21).[5]

3.2. Ekklesia in the New Testament

The Greek root word for ‘church’ is ekklesia (ἐκκλησια) whose general accepted root word is the verb form, Kaleô (κά𝜆ϵω) meaning “to call”. Ekklesia is a combination of two Greek words ek ‘from or out’ of and Kaleo ‘to call’ to mean ekkaleô (έκκαλ𝜖ω) ‘to call out’ thus, Ekklesia means ‘the called out ones’.[6]

The primary reference to ekklesia in New Testament is to actual assembly meeting for worship. Christ confess ekklesia as an assembly in which members come together and it is a community or group whose members are bound together. Paul clearly shows the essential connection of Jesus Christ and his institution. It is like head and body (Eph.1:22; Col.1:24), like husband and wife (Eph.5:21-33).Thus, in New Testament the term ekklesia is described for congregations of Christian who by their relationship are united with Jesus Christ.[7]

3.2.1. Ekklesia in the four gospels

The gospel of Mathew has often been called the ‘ecclesiological gospel’ not only because it alone uses the word ekklesia (Matt. 16:18; 18:17), and gives the formula for baptism (28:19), but also because in a number of places the evangelist quite boldly makes the words of Jesus address issues that were of interest in Mathew’s church and the way he present Jesus as the fulfilment of hope of Israel. According to J.P. Meier, “the connection between Christology and ecclesiology is one of the most typical characteristics.” It is only in Matthew’s gospel, in that the word ekklesia is used in the universal sense.[8]

In the gospel of Mark, Christology and discipleship are the twin themes around which Mark develops his narrative. According to Kee, ‘in every case the images employed in Mark to represent Christian existence are corporate.” The call to follow is made to individual, but the followers then assume a collective identity. They become members of the eschatological family (Mark 3:20f; 10:28-31); sheep in God’s flock (6:34); part of the new vineyard (12:1-11), the community of the new covenant (14:24). Kee concludes that the central feature of the Marcan understanding of the identity of Jesus followers is that they are the ‘people of God’.[9]

The distinguishing feature of the Lucan ecclesiology is the overwhelming presence of the spirit. It is the intervention of the holy spirit at crucial moments when the help is needed. The courage lacked apostles were empowered by the spirit to speak (Acts 2:33; 4.8;31). It also guided or directed the missionaries to promising areas (8:28; 39). Thus, Lucan ecclesiology is a pneumatological ecclesiology.[10]

In John’s gospel, there is a communal imagery. Jesus is portrayed as the good shepherd who lays down his life for the sheep brings to the fore John’s profound communal understanding of disciples. Another important indicator of Johns communal understanding of the Christian faith is seen in his treatment of the holy spirit identified as the paraclete- the helper, advocate, counsellor (7:39; 15:26-27; 16:7-15). The gospel of John also gives a profound linking of Christology and ecclesiology. Pryor, in his study concludes that John presents the Christian community as “the true, eschatological people of God gathered by their covenant Lord, Jesus.”[11]

3.2.2. Ekklesia in Paul’s writing

Paul’s profound reflection on the church is one of his richest contributions towards Christian theology. According to Ridderbos, Paul have three primary viewpoints for the understanding of ekklesia; Firstly, as the ‘whole church’ or ‘Christian in one location’ found in any instances in Ephesians and Colossians (Eph. 1:22;3:10,21;5:23-32; Col.1:18,24). By this Paul also means both geographically and theologically. Secondly, the ‘local congregations’ or ‘Small Christian group’ (1Cor.1:2; 2Cor.1:1; Gal.1:22) like synagogue. Paul considered a group of Christian meeting in a home an ekklesia (Rom.16:5; 1Cor. 16:19). In Paul’s writings the use of the word ekklesia refers to what Protestants would call today ‘local church’ or ‘the congregation’. The members were an expression of the body of Christ, corporately united with their Lord and united together by the spirit. Thirdly, the ‘religious gathering’ or ‘Christian gathering’ that is evident in many of Paul’s letters (1Cor.11:18;14:19; Rom 16:5). The word ekklesia was used by Paul to refer to the gatherings of Christians both in a particular place and of believers everywhere, gathered together as God’s people (1 Cor.1:2; 10:32; 12:12-13). Thus, in short, ‘church’ means a group of people who find themselves in a new relationship with one another because of their new relationship with Christ. The whole thrust in New Testament is that the ekklesia is the community, fellowship of the risen Christ.[12]

4. Tribal Situation in NE India: An overview

4.1. Tribal Realities in India as a whole

According to Nirmal Minz, tribal reality includes four major components: the people, their homeland, power and God.[13] The term ‘tribe’ is commonly used in at least three different contexts:

1. Tribe is understood as an objective ethnological category, relevant to the practical problem of classifying social groups.

2. Tribe figures as one stage in an evolutionary sequence, (e.g.. band, tribe chiefdom and state) stressing the historical transformation of certain features of politics, economy and social organisation.

3. Tribes serve as an expression of socio-cultural identity and distinctiveness among descendants of aboriginal social groups now threatened by assimilation, displacement and destruction at the hands of encroaching states.

In order to understand the tribal situation in India, it is necessary to look at the definition of the air “tribe” given by the tribal Christians themselves at a consultation held in Shillong, in 1962, it is defined as, ‘an indigenous homogenous unit, speaking a common language, claiming a loyalty observing social and political customs based on kinship.’[14]

A tribe in India is an administrative and political concept. According to the constitution of India, the President of India is empowered to specify the list of Scheduled Tribes for each state and Union Territory. The Indian Government extends the privileges granted to the Scheduled Tribes to those social groups which are not fully integrated into the Indian nation for reasons of economic handicaps, different ecological conditions, different racial origin and a different mental and religious world outlook and culture.[15] Hrangkhuma writes, according to the above definition, the following are the major criteria used to differentiate a tribe from a non-tribal: the degree of integration in the mainstream, economic position, environment, ecology, origin and religion. [16]

Tribal people in India are given different names like Vanvasi (forest dwellers), Vanjati (forest caste), Pahari (hill-dwellers) etc. The situation of tribal people in India can in short be describes as the politically powerless, economically exploited socially stigmatised and culturally alienated. The tribal population in India is considered to be the second largest in the world and are boarded classified into three major racial and linguistic groups. It is believed that the origin of the idea of ‘tribe’ in India goes back to the time of the Aryan invasions. The attitude of the non-tribal towards tribal people in Indian has been very negative. In the cast system of the dominant Indian society, tribal people are classified at the bottom of the social structure. They are considered to be untouchable, servile class, impure and sometimes less than human.[17]

4.2. Tribal Realities in Northeast India

Northeast India composes the “seven states” of the Indian Republic. They are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. F.S.Down has estimated that they arrived in the region during the past three or four hundred years. Tribal people of Northeast India can be broadly classified into two groups bases on geographical location: the hill tribes and the plain tribes. The tribes of Northeast India have experienced a state of alienation throughout their history. The following are some of the major factors responsible for the tribal problems in Northeast India in general.

1. Geographical and socio-cultural contexts: Northeast India is geographically isolated from the rest of the country which gives rise of some socio-cultural and political problems of the Indian tribal people.[18]

2. Politics applied for Tribals: a number of parables facing the tribal people in Northeast India are the products of the policies of the non-tribal or the dominant groups for the tribes. Notable among these are the policies of assimilation, isolation and integration.

3. Tribal Development: the present system of development programmes for tribal areas of NE India are sponsored by the central government. In this system, planning is done under the elaborate structure of central guidelines and approvals and the government controls all the planning and development administration. As a result, the people have no place in the formation or governance of development plans and measures. [19]

5. Present Day Tribal Ecclesiological Context

Tribal communities have a rich tradition of culture, values and norms. Indeed, cultural values have placed them in good standing and many are gaining relevance in postmodern society, especially in areas of ecological, and theological concerns, and community living. The theological exercise of construing a tribal ecclesiology. It is necessary to consider the Context of the Tribal Christian and the Church. The Church in the tribal areas, particularly that of the North East India, in its worship patterns, doctrines, and administrative structures bears influence of the Western Ecclesiastical system that the missionaries brought to these areas.[20]

5.1. The Tribal World View

Tribal communities had been known for their simplicity, honesty, truthfulness and their concern for others and love for community. The present moral ruin depicts the lack of an effective and common ethical standard in the tribal churches and their failure to live as moral communities. K.P. Aleaz says, ‘the distinctiveness of tribal tradition lies in affirming the centrality of land or space as the foundation for understanding the tribal people’s culture, identity, personhood and religious ethos.’[21] According to, Tenthy Keitzar, Tribal Theology is makes a sharp distinction between the tribal people and the Westerners or Hindu Indians on grounds of their thought process. He draws out parallels between the Hebrew scriptures and tribal worldview by suggesting that the tribal people think in terms of concrete ideas. New Testament is necessary for the contextual appeal of the tribal theology then relying on the interpretation mediated through western though patterns. In light of these arguments, a tribal ecclesiology, in its liturgy and worship, should attempt to draw out from their world view rather than depending on the traditions of other, especially the western.[22]

5.2. The Tribal Resources for Ecclesiology

Tribal theology also looks for a theological approach from below, in which the contextual elements are important means of source for doing theology. Yangkahao Vashum lists some of these resources which include traditional heritages (Tribal religio-philosophical traditions),tribal history and experiences.[23]

These traditions include experience of oppressions and hardships, stories, myths, symbols, dances, songs, and the tribal people’s spirituality that includes tribal religion.[24] An important aspect of these resources is the oral tradition, tribal ecclesiology should attempt to bring these oral traditions to the center. It should revive the local forms of art in its worship by developing liturgy or worship pattern that would reflect, for instance, storytelling in the local folklore style or music in local pattern.[25] Oral traditions find its richness in tribal communities. There are no written records of earlier tribal history of their experience with God, but the oral traditions are very strong and capable of maintaining a faithful continuity amongst the tribal communities.[26]

6. Constructing a Tribal Ecclesia

Basing through a principle of ‘Zawlbuk’, an important social institution for the Mizo-Hmar society, we shall try to propose a model for the tribal church. The word ‘zawl’ denotes plain or flat and ‘buk’ simply refers to barrack. Zawlbuk may be thought of as male dormitory or bachelor barrack. It is a place where all the bachelor or unmarried young men of the community sleep and guard the village at night. It is one of the largest barrack and located at near the center, i.e. next to the chief’s house. It was an obligation for a boy who turns Fifteen years to sleep in the Zawlbuk, as they were responsible to protect the people.[27]

The activities of the zawlbuk had a strong education for a young man in the training over the individual’s mind, installing the philosophy of ‘Tlawmngaihna’ to all leve and age groups. In short, it is a fundamental and historic Mizo social institution owned be each and every village in the land. Being included in the society meant being included in the zawlbuk mandate. It was the village information centre, education centre. A place where one learn from singing to wrestle, religious myths and oratory, Mizo history and all other essential part for the maintenance of Mizo culture and identity.[28]

From the inception of Christianity zawlbuk was used as a centre place of evangelism. Pioneer missionaries such as F.W. Savidge and J.H. Lorrain several times in their early evangelistic work. The chief usually put zawlbuk for them to rest, thus, as a mark of respect, the young men would sleep at their house during their stay. The importance of zawlbuk institution then gradually decrease as Christianity along with the British government policies attacked the traditional culture. Rev. D.E. Jones opened a school, thus gradually replacing the zawlbuk educational system by Christian institutions and written educational system. Even though the institution of zawlbuk could not continue in its traditional form, the spirit of zawlbuk was the resurrected in the Mizo society in different form as Mizo ecclesiology.[29]

As zawlbuk was an institution that practice the life of ‘tlawmngaihna’, the church could teach and instruct the basic philosophy in life or ethical life by maintaining strict discipline. As it was a place where different kind of people stayed without any discrimination regardless of the person’s background, the tribal church must also maintain equality to all its members and must be inclusive as that of zawlbuk. It was also an institution which contributes towards peace and harmony of the village, the tribal church must also contribute the same towards the Christian community. Zawlbuk was also the keeper of the Mizo culture and instrument to the welfare of the village, the tribal church must also be the custodian of the Christian faith and an instrument for the Kingdom of God.[30]

7. Tribal Ecclesiology in enriching Indian Christian Theology

The Tribal community have many things to teach the Church from their own culture and way of life. They offer community instead of individualism. Individualism has replaced the community understanding of the Church today. The tribal people, however, still give importance to community living and sharing. In the present day, Church prosperity and wealth has taken over the simple ways of living. The tribal people still continue to live a simple and modest life. Tribal Christians challenge us to live a Christ centered and people oriented life style where even foreigners have a place in our homes and churches.[31] The tribal Church teaches us the basic lesson of helping one another instead of being self-centered. They find lot of joy in the Church where they come together to worship. Tribal people are people with creative ideas and not of enforced imitation. In the present world we see people trying to imitate others but the tribal are examples of creative ideas. Tribal people are not just interested in mere enjoyment in life but they like to celebrate their lives. While wealthy people want to enjoy life and make merry, tribal people would like to celebrate it with the rest of the community.[32]

The tribal people are transparent and open in their dealing and approach. This is one reason why many of them become Christian. They did not go into so much of rational thinking about the Gospel message they heard, but simply believed on what they heard. Tribal people time and again strive to make life possible and this is what they can offer and accomplish. They have great potential to offer the Church a meaningful and hopeful future for the rest of the humanity.[33]

There should be no barrier and discrimination in the house of God. In the tribal Church men, women and people with disabilities are all invited to share and celebrate their gift for the common good. They understand the house of God on the basis of the richness of God’s creation. The tribal people believe that no culture, community is excluded from the structure of God’s creation. All are unique in their own way. Tribal people affirm ecumenical unity but not a Church power, hierarchy, expansion, extension and conquest. They envision a Church that respect, recognize, support, promotes, advocate them in their struggle for self-identification and self-determination. They also envision a Church that goes deeper into the tribal people’s experience not only as an object of study but especially as subject of ecclesiology and theological elaboration.[34]

8. Conclusion:

As discussed above, the tribal were considered backward from the rest of the people. Though Christianity came late as compared with the rest of the country, the tribal had their own way of worship and liturgy cemented on the belief that there exist a supreme being who was responsible for the creation of the earth and its components. Their practice of worship was usually conducted in mass and therefore with the coming of Christianity and the church, the tribal could blend in with the Christian way of life in the church. A positive critique would be the tribal ability to accept and practice Christian church life without compromising their traditions and customs completely.

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[1] Yangkahao Vahum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology and its Methodology: A Review and Proposal,” Journal of Tribal Studies vol. 13/1 (January-June: 2008): 39-52.  

[2] R. Zolawma, Tribla Ecclesiology: A Critical Synthesis of Early Christian Traditions and Cultural Traditions of Northeast India, (New Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2016), xl.  

[3] Sambhu Nath De, The Doctrine of the Church (Kuruppampady: Bethany House, 2015), 22-25.  

[4] D.A Carson, The Church in the Bible and the World: An International Study (Eugene: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1987) 16-17.  

[5] Carson, The Church in the Bible and the World…,18-19.  

[6] Samuel George, H. Joseph Lalfakimawia, Ajungla Jamir, ed., Ekklesia: Indian Conversations, (New Delhi: Christian World Imprints, 2015), 39.  

[7] Samuel George, H. Joseph, ed.., Ekklesia: Indian Conversations….,40.

[8] Zolawma, Tribla Ecclesiology…, 13-14.

[9] Zolawma, Tribla Ecclesiology…, 15.

[10] Samuel George, H. Joseph, ed.., Ekklesia: Indian Conversations….,40-41.

[11] Zolawma, Tribla Ecclesiology…, 13-14.

[12] Zolawma, Tribla Ecclesiology…, 23.

[13]  Nirmal Minz, “A theological interpretation of the tribal Reality” inReadings in Indian Christian theology vol. 1. Edited by R.S Sugirtharajah and Cecil Hargreaves(Delhi:ISPCK,1993),47  

[14] K. Thanzuava, Theology of Community (Aizawl: Mizoram Theological Conference, 1997), 1-6.  

[15] F. Hrangkhuma, “Christ and Tribal Culture,”in Christ and Cultures, edited by Jacob Kavunkal and F. Hrangkhuma(Bombay St. Paul’s, 1994),140.

[16] Hragkhuma, “Christ and Tribal Culture,”…, 140.  

[17] Vidhyaarthi and B.K. Rai, The Tribal Cultural of India (Delhi:Concept publishing Company, 1977), 25  

[18] Thanzauva, Theology of Community…, 12.  

[19] Zolawma, Tribal Ecclesiology…, 75-88.  

[20] Lalramliana Pachuau, “Countries of Tribal Theology: issues and perspectives”, (Bangalore: BTESSC, 2015), 80-82.  

[21] K.P. Aleaz, “A Tribal Christian Theology From India,” Indian Journal of Theology 44, No. 1 (2002), 21. 

[22] Rinthy Keitzar, “Tribal Pespective in Biblical Hermeneutics Today,” Indian Journal Theology 31, No. 3 (December 1982), 311.  

[23] Yangkahao Vashum, “Sources for Studying Tribal Theology,” In Tribal Theology; A Reader, ed., Shimreingam Shimray (Jorhat: Tribal Study Centre, 2003), 70  

[24] Wati A. Longchar, “Teaching Third World Contextual theologies from Ecumenical Perspective-Tribal/Indigenous People’s Theology,” Indian Journal of Theology 44, No. 1 (2002), 12.  

[25] Barnes Mawrie, “Experience of the Tribal Socio-Political, Historical and Cultural Context,” Mission Today 10, No. 1 (March 2008), 53.  

[26] J. L. Roy, “Primal Vision and Hermeneutics in North-East India: A Protestant Tribal View,” Indian Journal of Theology 31, No. 3 (December 1982), 324.  

[27] Hrilrokhum Thiek, History of the Hmars in North East India (Guwahati: Bhabani Offset Private Ltd.,2013), 328-329.  

[28] Thiek, History of the Hmars…, 328-329.

[29] Dr. Lalhminga Chhangte, Life and witness of the Churches in Mizoram (Serkawn: The literature Committee,1987), 28.  

[30] Chhangte, Life and witness of the Churches in Mizoram…, 28.

[31] V.V. Thomas, Dalits and Tribal Christians of India: Issue and Challenges (Kerala: Focus India Trust, 2014), 347.  

[32] Thomas, Dalits and Tribal Christians of India…, 348.

[33] Thomas, Dalits and Tribal Christians of India…, 349.

[34] Wati Longchar, “An Exploration of Indigenous Theological Framework” in Contextual Theologies: Method and Perspective edited by Wati Longchar (Kolkata: SCEPTRE, 2013), 170.  

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