Buddhism

Buddhism

1. Historical Survey: Social, political and religious context of emerging Buddhism, Life and work of Gautama Buddha, Early Divisions, Northern and Southern Buddhism, Asoka and Kanishka, Expansion and development of Buddhism in India and Beyond, decline of Buddhism, Anagarika Dharmapala, BR Ambedkar

Social, political and religious context of emerging Buddhism

Buddhism, the religion founded by Gautama Siddhartha who was born in India in the sixth century B.C. has been referred to sometimes as the great aberration from the Indian tradition. While there are certain elements of truth in this charge, it must also be admitted that Buddhism did not depart entirely from the prevailing Indian systems.

At the time of Buddha, the dominant position in Indian society was held by the Brahmans. They held the key to knowledge and the power that went with that knowledge.

It was out of this religious and social background that Gautama Siddhartha emerged during the sixth century B.C. to establish a new religion called Buddhism. He repudiated the Brahmanical claims that the Vedas were the sole and infallible source of religious truth. He also rejected correct performance of the rituals as means of salvation, and he disapproved of the Upanishadic emphasis on intellectual means to attain emancipation. He also protested against the iniquities of the caste system, especially the high pretensions of the Brahman class, and welcomed among his followers members from not only the four casts but also from among the outcasts. In all his sermons, he preached the middle way, rejecting austerities on the one hand and gratification of the senses on the other. For Gautama, salvation was to be attained by following a rigorous code of personal behavior, with the greatest emphasis on personal conduct and individual ethics. It was because of these deviations from the traditional Indian pattern that Buddhism was sometimes referred to as the great aberration. In spite of these differences, however, Siddhartha was still a child of his age and could not divest himself entirely of the intellectual and religious baggage of his times. In his system, he still followed the Indian doctrine of deeds and rebirth, that a sentient being was to suffer repeated rebirth in the endless cycle of life as a consequence of the deeds that he had performed. He adhered also to the prevailing view that the goal of religious life was release from this endless circle of rebirths; likewise he believed that this religious life could best believed by cutting off ties with family and society. In the light of these similarities there are some who would object to branding Buddhism as an aberration, and who would argue that Gautama Siddhartha still belonged to the great Indian tradition.

Life and works of Gautama Buddha (A sap tawng hi a fuk naw zeu zeua chu tiem thiem el ding)

Buddha was believed to have lived during 563-480 BCE. He was born in Kapilavastu. His family name was Gautama and his personal name was Siddharta. His father was Suddhodana and his mother was Mayadevi. His mother died when he was seven days old and his father married her sister Prajavathy and thereby she became his stepmother. During his birth, a sage named ‘Astya’ predicated that Siddharta will become either a great conqueror or a great teacher. Therefore, his father built three palaces for his luxurious living in three seasons. He was attended by female servant; he learned all the acts that are necessary for an emperor. He was always separated from the common people in order to avoid confrontation with sorrow, unhappiness and suffering.

When he was 16 years old, he married Yosodhara and a son was born to them. He lived happily for 13 years with his wife and son Rahul. When he was 29 years old he got an opportunity to come out of his garden humbini. To his surprise he came in contact with the human predicaments such as weariness (old age), illness and death. As a result he realized that ‘dukkhs’ (suffering) is present in the life of all human beings. Questions such as the reason for suffering and the ways of escaping from suffering sprung in his mind. As he went on walking with a disturbed mind, he met a hermit who was quite, calm and peaceful. This changed his mind to realize that renunciation is the means of escape from suffering. Therefore he decided to renounce his earthly life.

When Buddha was 29 years old and his families were celebrating the birthday of his son Rahul, he left his home to the forest. He took an oath that he started wearing yellow robe and shaved his head like a hermit. He was in the forest for 6 years practicing extreme forms of asceticism under the guidance of his teachers Alarakalama and Uddka. He ate less food and meditated most of the time and there may he became very weak. One day he fainted which made five of his followers leave him with thinking that he is dead. Finally Buddha got up with dissatisfaction about his ascetic practices and began to take food. He left the forest and came to the village and sat under a ‘Peepal’ tree, in a place called Gaya in Bihar. He practiced meditation for 49 days and finally he got ‘enlightenment’. This place was called as ‘Bodh Gaya’ after this incident. He was called as Buddha after his ‘enlightenment’. He was also called to ‘tasgata’ which means, the one which has arrived at redemption. Since he received ‘enlightenment’ at Bodh Gaya, he is called ‘Bodhi Sattva’.

After his ‘enlightenment’ Buddha taught his disciples for 45 years through conversations, lectures and parables. He received a command from god Brahma that “if it is not taught the world would perish. The first converts of Buddha were his own teachers Alarakalama and Uddka and his five own disciples. He was a strong advocate of non-violence. He died at the age of 80.

Early Divisions: Northern and Southern Buddhism, Asoka and Kanishka

Southern Buddhism

Buddhism that spread from India to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asian countries such as Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. Southern Buddhism is also called Theravada Buddhism or Southern Theravada Buddhism. Southern Buddhism is placed in the category of Hinayana. Hinayana, or Lesser Vehicle, was originally a pejorative term employed by Mahayana Buddhists. In the areas where Theravada Buddhism was disseminated, Mahayana Buddhism also spread, but it was ultimately superseded by Theravada.

Theravada Buddhism is based upon the Pali canon called Tipitaka (Skt Tripitaka ), which consists of sutras, texts on rules of monastic discipline, and doctrinal commentaries. Theravada Buddhists revere Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, as the sole perfect master and teacher.Based on the Pali canon, monks strive to adhere to the doctrines and practices taught by Shakyamuni Buddha, endeavor to observe the precepts, and involve themselves in charitable activities. Laypersons accumulate benefits through offerings to monasteries and monks. Many people hold faith in Theravada Buddhism while retaining indigenous beliefs that are regarded as compatible with Buddhism. The introduction of Buddhism into Sri Lanka dates back to the third century B.C.E. During the reign of the Indian king Ashoka, the king’s son Mahendra brought Theravada Buddhism to Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan king, Devanampiya Tissa, built for Mahendra the Mahavihara monastery in the capital of Anuradhapura. That monastery is the center of Theravada Buddhism among Southeast Asian countries, and Theravada Buddhists in these countries maintain close contact with fellow Buddhists in Sri Lanka.

Northern Buddhism

The teachings of Buddhism that spread north from India to Central Asia, Tibet, China, and Korea, and then to Japan. The term Northern Buddhism is contrasted with Southern Buddhism , the Buddhism that spread south to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asian countries, such as Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. This distinction was applied originally in the nineteenth century by European scholars of Buddhism; the division of Buddhism based on the Pali scriptures preserved in Sri Lanka was called Southern Buddhism, and the division of Buddhism mainly based on the Sanskrit scriptures transmitted from India to Central Asia and China was referred to as Northern Buddhism. Southern Buddhism is also called Theravada Buddhism. In the areas where Northern Buddhism spread, Mahayana Buddhism is predominant. Tibetan Buddhism, also known as Lamaism, is classified as Northern Buddhism. It is a mixture of the teachings on monastic discipline of early Buddhism, Mahayana, and Tantric Buddhism, and is practiced mostly in Tibet and Mongolia. From early on, Northern Buddhism was transmitted from India to Central Asia, but it was not until around the first century that Buddhism spread eastward to China. Thereafter the translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese proceeded in earnest, giving rise to numerous Chinese versions of the scriptures. In the later fourth century, Buddhism made its way eastward to Korea, which was then divided into three kingdoms—KoguryØ, Paekche, and Silla. From Korea it was introduced to Japan in the sixth century. Northern and Southern Buddhism are designations related to the development of Buddhism from a geographical viewpoint and not a classification based on teaching. Though this classification remains somewhat ambiguous, it is indisputable that, in the countries where Northern Buddhism spread, Mahayana has been prevalent, and in the countries where Southern Buddhism spread, Theravada has prevailed. Kanishka’s reputation in Buddhist tradition is based mainly that he convened the 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir. Images of the Buddha based on 32 physical signs were made during his time.

Expansion and development of Buddhism in India and beyond

The spread of Buddhism: c.380-250 BC

By the time of his death, at about the age of eighty, the Buddha’s followers are established as communities of monks in northern India. Wandering through villages and towns with their begging bowls, eager to describe the path to the truth, they are familiar figures. But so are many other such groups, including the Jains. The advance of the Buddhists beyond the others is largely due to the enthusiastic support of a king of the 3rd century BC. Asoka rules over much of the Indian subcontinent. His inscriptions, carved on pillars and rocks throughout his realm, bear witness both to the spread of Buddhism and to his own benevolent support of the Buddha’s principles. During Asoka’s reign, and with his encouragement, Buddhism spreads to south India and into Sri Lanka. The latter has remained to this day a stronghold of the earliest form of Buddhism, known as Theravada (meaning the ‘school of elders’).

A religion for east Asia: from the 1st century AD

Buddhism is the first of the world religions to expand from its place of origin. It does so by two distinct routes.

Theravada Buddhism is carried eastwards into southeast Asia, in an upsurge of Indian trade from the 1st century AD. The merchants and sailors are either Buddhist or Hindu, and missionaries take advantage of the new opportunities for travel. As a result the kingdoms of southeast Asia, much influenced by the more advanced civilization of India, variously adopt Buddhist and Hindu religious practices. Which of the two prevails is often the result of the preference of a ruling dynasty. The areas which eventually choose Buddhism are Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.

Mahayana Buddhism travels by a land route. In the 2nd century AD northern India and Afghanistan are ruled by the Kushan dynasty, one of whose kings, Kanishka, is a devotee of this form of Buddhism. His encouragement of it has special significance, since his kingdom occupies a central position on the Silk Road - at one of its busiest times, when its caravans effectively link China with Rome.

Buddhism is well established in China by the 2nd century AD and coexists there, with varying fortunes, alongside China’s indigenous religions - Daoism and Confucianism. By the 6th century its influence has spread through Korea to Japan. Here too it coexists, in a shifting pattern, with the earlier Japanese religion, Shinto.

The region which develops the most distinctive form of Buddhism lies between India and China, and receives its first Buddhist influences from both directions in the 7th century. This is Tibet. It will evolve an element of Buddhism unique to itself - that of a succession of reincarnating lamas, with the Dalai Lama as the senior line.

In India Buddhism flourishes alongside Hinduism for many years, but from about the 8th century it declines (though Theravada Buddhism finds a lasting home in Sri Lanka). The Mahayana version of the faith becomes gradually submerged by the older and more vigorous Hinduism. It has perhaps been too willing to accommodate new themes, influenced by India’s bustling inclination to worship everything.

Decline of Buddhism

Influence of Hinduism

It has been asserted, simplistically and without much historical evidence, that Hinduism became a more “intelligible and satisfying road to faith for many ordinary worshippers” than it had been because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god, but had also seen the development of an emotional facet with the composition of devotional hymns. The period between the 400 CE and 1000 CE saw gains by Brahmanism and local cults at the expense of Buddhism.

The White Hun invasions

Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist Sangha, especially in the wake of the White Hun invasion.

Turkish Muslim Conquerors

The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into South Asia. The resulting occasional and sporadic destruction of temples did not affect Hinduism, but for Buddhism the destruction of the stupas has been attributed with a rapid and almost total disappearance from North India. Additionally, more academic forms of Indian Buddhism relied on patronage by kings and merchants and this change in rulership coupled with the economic integration with the Islamic world and thus the growing domination of long-distance trade by the Muslim merchant class eroded these sources of patronage resulting in an absorption into either Hinduism or Islam.

Causes within the Buddhist tradition of the time

By the time the Muslims began conquering northern India in the 12th century under the Ghurids, the number of monasteries had severely declined. Buddhism, which once had spread across the face of India, was a vital force confined to an ever-shrinking number of monasteries in the areas of its origins. Scholars believe that the monasteries at the time became detached from everyday life in India and that Indian Buddhism had no rituals or priests with the laymen relying on Brahmin priests for marriages and funerals.

Revival of Buddhism: Anagarika Dharmapala, BR Ambedkar

Anagarika Dharmapala and the Maha Bodhi Society

A revival of Buddhism began in India in 1891, when the Sri Lankan Buddhist leader Anagarika Dharmapala founded the Maha Bodhi Society. Its activities expanded to involve the promotion of Buddhism in India. In June 1892, a meeting of Buddhists took place at Darjeeling. Dharmapala spoke to Tibetan Buddhists and presented a relic of the Buddha to be sent to the Dalai Lama.

Dharmapāla built many vihāras and temples in India, including the one at Sarnath, the place of Buddha’s first sermon. He died in 1933, the same year he was ordained a bhikkhu.

Neo Buddhist movement (Conversion of downtrodden)

A Buddhist revivalist movement among Dalit Indians was initiated in 1890s by socialist leaders such as Iyothee Thass, Bagya Reddy varma of Hyderabad, and Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi. In the 1950s, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar turned his attention to Buddhism and travelled to Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) to attend a convention of Buddhist scholars and monks. While dedicating a new Buddhist vihara near Pune, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar announced that he was writing a book on Buddhism, and that as soon as it was finished, he planned to make a formal conversion to Buddhism. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar twice visited Burma in 1954; the second time in order to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon. In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha, or the Buddhist Society of India. He completed his final work, The Buddha and His Dhamma, in 1956. It was published posthumously.

After meetings with the Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Ambedkar organised a formal public ceremony for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Accepting the Three Refuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner, Ambedkar completed his own conversion. He then proceeded to convert an estimated 500,000 of his supporters who were gathered around him. Taking the 22 Vows, Ambedkar and his supporters explicitly condemned and rejected Hinduism and Hindu philosophy.This was the world’s biggest mass religious conversion; it is celebrated by Buddhists every year at Nagpur; 1-1.5 million Buddhists gather there every year for the ceremony. He then traveled to Kathmandu in Nepal to attend the Fourth World Buddhist Conference. His final manuscript, The Buddha or Karl Marx, remains unfinished; he died on 6 December 1956.

2. Buddhist Scriptures

The Pali Canon (Tripitaka); Introduction to Mahayana Literature

The Tipitaka (Pali ti, “three,” + pitaka, “baskets”), or Pali canon, is the collection of primary Pali language texts which form the doctrinal foundation of Theravada Buddhism. The Tipitaka and the paracanonical Pali texts (commentaries, chronicles, etc.) together constitute the complete body of classical Theravada texts.

The three divisions of the Tipitaka are:

Vinaya Pitaka

The collection of texts concerning the rules of conduct governing the daily affairs within the Sangha — the community of bhikkhus (ordained monks) and bhikkhunis (ordained nuns). Far more than merely a list of rules, the Vinaya Pitaka also includes the stories behind the origin of each rule, providing a detailed account of the Buddha’s solution to the question of how to maintain communal harmony within a large and diverse spiritual community.

Sutta Pitaka

The collection of suttas, or discourses, attributed to the Buddha and a few of his closest disciples, containing all the central teachings of Theravada Buddhism. (More than one thousand sutta translations are available on this website.) The suttas are divided among five nikayas (collections):

Digha Nikaya — the “long collection”

Majjhima Nikaya — the “middle-length collection”

Samyutta Nikaya — the “grouped collection”

Anguttara Nikaya — the “further-factored collection”

Khuddaka Nikaya — the “collection of little texts”: 18 texts

Abhidhamma Pitaka

The collection of texts in which the underlying doctrinal principles presented in the Sutta Pitaka are reworked and reorganized into a systematic framework that can be applied to an investigation into the nature of mind and matter.

Mahayana Literature

Mahayana sutras began to be compiled from the first century BCE. They form the basis of the various Mahayana schools, and survive predominantly in primary translations in Chinese and Tibetan of original texts in Sanskrit. From the Chinese and Tibetan texts, secondary translations were also made into Mongolian, Korean, Japanese and Sogdian.

Unlike the Pali Canon, there is no definitive Mahayana canon as such. Nevertheless the major printed or manuscript collections, published through the ages and preserved in Chinese and Tibetan, each contain parallel translations of the majority of known Mahayana sutra. The Chinese also wrote several indigenous sutras and included them into their Mahayana canon.

Mahayana Buddhists believe that the Mahayana sutras, with the possible exception of those with an explicitly Chinese provenance, are an authentic account of teachings given during the Buddha’s lifetime. However, Theravada Buddhists believe them to be later inventions of monks striving to change the original teachings of Buddha, and consider the Mahayana sutras apocryphal.

While scholars agree that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the first century CE onwards, with some of them having their roots in other scriptures, composed in the first century BCE, some Mahayana Buddhists believe that the Mahayana sutras were written down at the time of the Buddha and stored secretly for 500 years, uncovered when people were ready for these “higher teachings.”

3. Main teachings of early Buddhism

Three marks of existence: anicca, anatta, dukha; The four noble truths and the eightfold path; Theory of dependent origination; Doctrine of Karma and rebirth; Concept of nibbana; Basic ideas of Mahayana Buddhism; Bodhistava ideal, mythology

Three marks of existence

All that exists in the universe is subject to three characteristics:

anicca. Everything is limited to a certain duration and, consequently, liable to disappear.

anatta. Everything is deprived of a self. There is no self-inherent entity, nothing that can be controlled.

dukkha. Everything is unsatisfactory. There is nothing that can be relied upon, there is nothing that can bring true happiness.

The four noble truths and the eightfold path

Buddha was concerned about the meaning of life in the midst of suffering. He proposed that suffering is common to all and the end to suffering is also achievable. According to him, the understanding of suffering is possible through the understanding of Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha and Marga.

a. Dukkha:- Dukkha is the truth of suffering. Suffering is an integral part of human existence. Happiness is transitory or momentary because pleasure and happiness at the end brings dissatisfaction. Life is permeated by suffering in the form of birth, sickness, death, union with unpleasant things, separation from the love object, unfulfilled wish etc.

b. Samudaya (Causes of suffering):- Desire is the cause of suffering. Desire is called ‘tanha’. Suffering is not from external agency; rather it is in the inner most being of human being. Suffering arises out of desire for future life and desire for success in present life. The craving for more and more desire results with more and more suffering. We are born again and again because of desire or attachment holds our birth together.

c. Nirodha (cessation/annihilation):- Cessation of suffering is possible when there is a cessation of desire-Absence of desire culminates in Nirvana or transcendent peace. It is a state of unspeakable joy, happiness and peace. It is a state of total painlessness, no mare thirst, hunger and suffering Nirodha is achieve by those who detach themselves from the senses and sensations.

d. Marga (Path to liberation):- It is the forth noble truth that guides us to the end of suffering and the realization of Nirvana. It is also called the middle path because it is neither an abandoning of pleasure, nor following a strict Ascetism. There are eight Margas. Therefore it is called ‘Astanga’ Margas.

 Right view (samyak dristi):- It is the right knowledge about the four noble truths. It is also a right understanding that caught distinguish transitory and permanent things.

 Right intention (Samyak sankalpa):- It is the right motivation of life. It is the right Intention of renunciation oppose to greed or desire. It is also the intention of benevolence and homelessness.

 Right Speeach (Samyak Vak):- It is the refraining from false teaches lies, harsh words, abusive language, unkind words, gossip and idle talk.

 Right Conduct/ action (Samyak karma):- This is the refraining from killing or injuring other beings, refraining from unchastity, refraining from abuse of senses, refraining from lying and refraining from intoxication.

 Right livelihood (Samyak Jiva):- It is refraining from using weapons, prostitution, slavery, butchery, intoxicating drinks, poison and refraining from immoral physical and verbal actions. It is a life lived in honest means not adopting forbidden means.

 Right effort (Samyak Viyayama):- It is an effort to prevent evil thoughts. It is an effort without desire or attachment.

 Right mindfulness (Samyak smriti):- It is a constant attentiveness to the activities of ones body and mind. There are four smiri foundations namely, Mindfulness of body, Mindfulness of feelings, Mindfulness of consciousness, Mindfulness of mental objects.

 Right concentration (Samyak Samadhi):- It is a meditation that purifies thoughts, words, and deeds. It is developed four stages of dyana namely:

1. Feeling of joy and freedom from passion.

2. Pointedness and freedom from intellectual activities.

3. Perfect peace and happiness.

4. Pure harmony and consciousness.

5. Free from feelings of happiness and unhappiness.

Theory of dependent origination

Pratītyasamutpāda is commonly translated as dependent origination or dependent arising. The term is used in the Buddhist teachings in two senses:

• On a general level, it refers to one of the central concepts in the Buddhist tradition—that all things arise in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions.
• On a specific level, the term is also used to refer to a specific application of this general principle—namely the twelve links of dependent origination.

The general or universal definition of pratityasamutpada (or “dependent origination” or “dependent arising” or “interdependent co-arising”) is that everything arises in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions; nothing exists as a singular, independent entity. A traditional example used in Buddhist texts is of three sticks standing upright and leaning against each other and supporting each other. If one stick is taken away, the other two will fall to the ground. Thich Nhat Hanh explains:

Pratitya samutpada is sometimes called the teaching of cause and effect, but that can be misleading, because we usually think of cause and effect as separate entities, with cause always preceding effect, and one cause leading to one effect. According to the teaching of Interdependent Co-Arising, cause and effect co-arise (samutpada) and everything is a result of multiple causes and conditions... In the sutras, this image is given: “Three cut reeds can stand only by leaning on one another. If you take one away, the other two will fall.” For a table to exist, we need wood, a carpenter, time, skillfulness, and many other causes. And each of these causes needs other causes to be. The wood needs the forest, the sunshine, the rain, and so on. The carpenter needs his parents, breakfast, fresh air, and so on. And each of those things, in turn, has to be brought about by other causes and conditions. If we continue to look in this way, we’ll see that nothing has been left out. Everything in the cosmos has come together to bring us this table. Looking deeply at the sunshine, the leaves of the tree, and the clouds, we can see the table. The one can be seen in the all, and the all can be seen in the one. One cause is never enough to bring about an effect. A cause must, at the same time, be an effect, and every effect must also be the cause of something else. Cause and effect inter-are. The idea of first and only cause, something that does not itself need a cause, cannot be applied.

This is, because that is

A simple formulation of the principle of pratityasamutpada is translated by Thich Nhat Hanh as follows:

This is, because that is.

This is not, because that is not.

This ceases to be, because that ceases to be.

Doctrine of Karma and Rebirth

Karma

Kamma literally means ‘action’ and refers to the process by which our moral actions have consequences for us in the future. Put simply, our good deeds lead to happy states; our bad deeds lead to unhappy ones. The word ‘deed’ here refers not to just physical actions but words and thoughts too. Indeed, the mind is the source of all our deeds, whether good or evil: ‘Mind foreruns conditions, mind is chief, mind-made are they’. Thus, ‘if one speaks or acts with wicked mind, because of that, pain pursues him’ Similarly, ‘if one speaks or acts with pure mind, because of that happiness follows him’.

One crucial aspect of the Buddhist teaching on karma is intention. In Buddhism, harming living creatures is seen as morally wrong but this does not mean that if you step on an ant by accident that you are morally culpable. Intention is everything, (though even good intentions have to be handled with intelligence and skillfulness).

To fully appreciate the Buddha’s teaching on karma, it has to be linked to the teaching on rebirth. The consequences of our actions can be fairly immediate but often they are not. They can occur in this life or future lives, maturing when the right conditions are in place.

The teaching on karma can influence the moral choices we make in life, knowing that whatever short-term benefits we might gain from doing something morally wrong we will inevitably have to pay the consequences. Like borrowing money from a bank, it has to be paid back at some stage in the future. On the other hand, we know that any good deeds are do will have benefits for us in the future.

Rebirth

Amongst the other key teachings that inform the Buddhist perspective is that of rebirth. The Buddha taught that we are born and reborn many times and that there are six realms of existence into which we can be reborn. These are the hell worlds, the realm of ‘hungry ghosts’, the animal realm, the human realm, the realm of jealous gods and the heavenly worlds. None of these worlds are satisfactory, though some are worse than others.

The world of hell-beings, hungry ghosts and animals are worlds where suffering and ignorance are the most acute. In the world of the jealous gods there is power but no peace. Even the world of gods - though pleasurable and long-lasting - will bring no ultimate satisfaction.

According to Buddhism, the best rebirth is that of a human being as it offers the best opportunity for gaining enlightenment. In the heavenly world, the gods are too absorbed in pleasure to make the necessary effort for spiritual realization. The other realms offer few opportunities for good actions and spiritual advancement. The human realm, however, has a certain degree of dissatisfaction coupled with opportunities for good action and spiritual practice.

The realm into which we are born depends on our actions. Good actions lead to happy states; bad actions lead to unhappy ones. For example, a generous heart is said to lead to wealth and prosperity and a loving heart is said to result in a beautiful form. A life that is lived well will result in a good human rebirth or a rebirth in one of the heavens. A life of cruelty and/or hatred will result in a rebirth in one of the lower realms.

This ‘wandering’ from birth to birth within these six realms is known as samsara. The ultimate goal is to escape from this cycle of birth and death to Nibbana or Nirvana, a state of ultimate bliss, rather than a heavenly realm which, as described before, offers no lasting satisfaction.

Concept of Nibbana

Nirvana is the earliest and most common term used to describe the goal of the Buddhist path. The term is ambiguous, and has several meanings. The literal meaning is “blowing out” or “quenching.”

Within the Buddhist tradition, this term has commonly been interpreted as the extinction of the “three fires”, or “three poisons”, passion, (raga), aversion (dvesha) and ignorance (moha or avidyā). When these fires are extinguished, release from the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra) is attained.

In time, with the development of Buddhist doctrine, other interpretations were given, such as the absence of the weaving (vana) of activity of the mind, the elimination of desire, and escape from the woods, cq. the five skandhas or aggregates.

Buddhist tradition distinguishes between nirvana in this lifetime and nirvana after death. In “nirvana-in-this-lifetime” physical life continues, but with a state of mind that is free from negative mental states, peaceful, happy, and non-reactive. With “nirvana-after-death”, paranirvana, the last remains of physical life vanish, and no further rebirth takes place.

Nirvana is the highest aim of the Theravada-tradition. In the Mahayana tradition, the highest goal is Buddhahood, in which there is no abiding in Nirvana, but a Buddha re-enters the world to work for the salvation of all sentient beings.

Although “non-self” and “impermanence” are accepted doctrines within most Buddhist schools, the teachings on nirvana reflect a strand of thought in which nirvana is seen as a transcendental, “deathless” realm, in which there is no time and no “re-death.” This strand of thought may reflect pre-Buddhist influences, and has survived especially in Mahayana-Buddhism and the idea of the Buddha-nature.

Basic ideas of Mahayana Buddhism: Bodhistava ideal, mythology

Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists differ in their perspective on the ultimate purpose of life and the way in which it can be attained. As discussed on the last page, Theravada Buddhists strive to become arhats, or perfected saints who have attained enlightenment and nirvana. This is considered to only be possible for monks and nuns, who devote their entire lives to the task. The best outcome the laity can hope for is to be reborn in the monastic life.

Mahayana Buddhists, on the other hand, hope to become not arhats but boddhisatvas, saints who have become enlightened but who unselfishly delay nirvana to help others attain it as well, as the Buddha did.

Perhaps more significantly for one who would choose between the paths, Mahayana Buddhists teach that enlightenment can be attained in a single lifetime, and this can be accomplished even by a layperson.

The Mahayana form of Buddhism tends to be more religious in nature than its Theravadan counterpart. It often includes veneration of celestial beings, Buddhas and boddhisatvas, ceremonies, religious rituals, magical rites, and the use of icons, images, and other sacred objects.

Boddhistava ideal

Mahāyāna Buddhism is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva.

Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the six perfections. Indelibly entwined with the bodhisattva vow is merit transference (pariṇāmanā).

In Mahāyāna Buddhism life in this world is compared to people living in a house that is on fire. People take this world as reality pursuing worldly projects and pleasures without realizing that the house is on fire and will soon burn down (due to the inevitability of death). A bodhisattva is one who has a determination to free sentient beings from samsara and its cycle of death, rebirth and suffering. This type of mind is known as the mind of awakening (bodhicitta). Bodhisattvas take bodhisattva vows in order to progress on the spiritual path towards buddhahood.

There are a variety of different conceptions of the nature of a bodhisattva in Mahāyāna. According to some Mahāyāna sources a bodhisattva is someone on the path to full Buddhahood. Others speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood. According to the Kun-bzang bla-ma’i zhal-lung, a bodhisattva can choose any of three paths to help sentient beings in the process of achieving buddhahood. They are:

1. king-like bodhisattva - one who aspires to become buddha as soon as possible and then help sentient beings in full fledge;
2. boatman-like bodhisattva - one who aspires to achieve buddhahood along with other sentient beings;
3. shepherd-like bodhisattva - one who aspires to delay buddhahood until all other sentient beings achieve buddhahood. Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteśvara and Śāntideva are believed to fall in this category.

In reality, the second two types of bodhicitta are wishes that are impossible to fulfill because it is only possible to lead others to enlightenment once we have attained enlightenment ourself. Therefore, only king-like bodhicitta is actual bodhicitta.

Mythology

As Buddhism spread, it divided into many different sects. Each sect developed its own traditions and mythology, often based on a combination of local beliefs and deities with Buddhist teaching.

India. Early Buddhism in India was influenced by Brahmanism, a form of the Hindu religion. Both religions shared the idea of the cycle of birth and reincarnation, and both included Devas, traditional Indian gods, and Asuras, powerful demons.

A principal figure in Indian Buddhism was Amitabha, who was a bodhisattva—a person who had become enlightened but postponed entering nirvana in order to help others gain enlightenment. According to legend, Amitabha was born from a lotus flower and came to the aid of Buddhists who worshiped him and pronounced his sacred name.

China. Arriving in China in about A . D . 65, Buddhism developed into one of that country’s three most important religions, alongside Taoism and Confucianism. Buddhist gods came to be worshiped in Taoist temples and vice versa, and in some temples, the three religions were practiced side by side.

4. Important Practices

The Sangha: beginnings, discipline for bikkhu and bikkhuni, social function; importance of the laity; common lay Buddhist practices; punyakarma, caritrakarma, santhikarma

The Sangha: beginnings, discipline for bikkhu and bikkhuni, social function

Sangha is a word in Pali and Sanskrit meaning “association”, “assembly,” “company” or “community” and most commonly refers in Buddhism to the monastic community of ordained Buddhist monks or nuns. This community is traditionally referred to as the bhikkhu-sangha or bhikkhuni-sangha. As a separate category, those who have attained any of the four stages of enlightenment, whether or not they are members of the bhikkhu-sangha or bhikkhuni-sangha, are referred to as the ariya-sangha or “noble Sangha”.

The Sangha also includes laymen and laywomen who are personally dedicated to the discipline of Dharma-Vinaya. This use of the word “Sangha” is only sometimes found in the Pali texts

The Buddha threw open the membership of the Sangha to all who were above the age of 18, both men and women who were free from leprosy, consumption and other infections and/or diseases. Persons who were in the service of the king or who were in debt or who have been branded as criminals were not allowed admission into the Sangha.

The ceremony of initiation into the Sangha was quite simple. A man or woman who was admitted into the Sangha had to have his or her head shaved, put on a yellow robe and the oath of fidelity to the Buddha Dhamma and Sangha

Life in the Sangha was hard and puritanic. The Bhikshu was to beg his food from door to door. He was to take only one meal a day, and if he missed it he could not take it any other time. He had no family and no private property. He was not to touch gold or silver. They were to spend most of their time spreading the message of the Buddha.

The Sangha was organized on democratic lines. All the important matters relating to the monks were decided by the assembly of the monks.

The Laity

In Buddhism, a layperson is known as an upasaka (masc.) or upasika (fem.). Buddhist laypeople take refuge in the Triple Gem (the Buddha, his teaching, and his community of noble disciples) and accept the Five Precepts (or the Eight Precepts) as rules for conduct. Laymen and laywomen are two of the “four assemblies” that comprise the Buddha’s “Community of Disciples.”

In Chinese Buddhism, there are usually laypersons, who are depicted wearing a black robe and sometimes a brown sash, denoting that they received the five precepts.

Comon Lay Buddhist practices: punyakarma, caritrakarma, santhikarma

Lay worship in Buddhism is primarily individual rather than congregational. Since earliest times a common expression of faith for laity and members of the sangha alike has been taking the Three Refuges, that is, reciting the formula “I take refuge in the Buddha. I take refuge in the dharma. I take refuge in the sangha.” Although technically the Buddha is not worshiped in Theravada, veneration is shown through the stupa cult. A stupa is a domelike sacred structure containing a relic. Devotees walk around the dome in a clockwise direction, carrying flowers and incense as a sign of reverence. The relic of the Buddha’s tooth in Kandy, Sri Lanka, is the focus of an especially popular festival on the Buddha’s birthday. The Buddha’s birthday is celebrated in every Buddhist country. In Theravada this celebration is known as Vaisakha, after the month in which the Buddha was born. Popular in Theravada lands is a ceremony known as pirit, or protection, in which readings from a collection of protective charms from the Pali canon are conducted to exorcise evil spirits, cure illness, bless new buildings, and achieve other benefits.
In Mahayana countries ritual is more important than in Theravada. Images of the buddhas and bodhisattvas on temple altars and in the homes of devotees serve as a focus for worship. Prayer and chanting are common acts of devotion, as are offerings of fruit, flowers, and incense. One of the most popular festivals in China and Japan is the Ullambana Festival, in which offerings are made to the spirits of the dead and to hungry ghosts. It is held that during this celebration the gates to the other world are open so that departed spirits can return to earth for a brief time.