- A Brief historical survey: Arabian context in Muhammad’s time; life and work of Muhammas; the first four Khalifas; the subsequent expansion of Islam; the division between Sunnis and Shias; Islam in India from the 10th to the 15th centuries; Islam under the Moghul rulers; Islam under Tipu Sultan; Islam during the Indian renaissance; Muslims in independent India.
Arabian
context in Muhammad’s time
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The most
remarkable feature of the political life of Arabia before Islam was
the total absence of political organization in any form. The
authority of the tribal chiefs, however, rested, in most cases, on
their character and personality, and was moral rather than political.
The only law of the land was lawlessness. In the event a crime was
committed, the injured party took law in its own hands, and tried to
administer “justice” to the offender. This system led very
frequently to acts of horrendous cruelty.
The
population of Arabia consisted of two main divisions, sedentary and
nomadic. Hijaz and South Arabia were dotted with many small and a few
large towns. The rest of the country had a floating population
composed of Bedouins. They were backward in the civil and political
sense but they were also a source of anxiety and fear for the
sedentary population. They lived as pirates of the desert, and they
were notorious for their unrestrained individualism and anarchic
tribal particularism.
The more
important tribes exercised a certain amount of authority in their
respective areas. In Makkah the dominant tribe was the Quraysh; in
Yathrib, the dominant tribes were the Arab tribes of Aus and Khazraj,
and the Jewish tribes of Nadheer, Qaynuqaa and Qurayza. The Quraysh
of Makkah considered themselves superior to the Bedouins but the
latter had only contempt for the town-dwellers who for them were only
a “nation of shopkeepers.”
Economically,
the Jews were the leaders of Arabia. They were the owners of the best
arable lands in Hijaz, and they were the best farmers in the country.
They were also the entrepreneurs of such industries as existed in
Arabia in those days, and they enjoyed a monopoly of the armaments
industry.
Slavery was
an economic institution of the Arabs. Male and female slaves were
sold and bought like animals, and they formed the most depressed
class of the Arabian society.
The most
powerful class of the Arabs was made up by the capitalists and
money-lenders. The rates of interest which they charged on loans were
exorbitant, and were especially designed to make them richer and
richer, and the borrowers poorer and poorer.
The most
important urban centers of Arabia were Makkah and Yathrib, both in
Hijaz. The citizens of Makkah were mostly merchants, traders and
money-lenders. Their caravans traveled in summer to Syria and in
winter to Yemen.
The period
in the Arabian history which preceded the birth of Islam is known as
the Times of
Ignorance. Judging by
the beliefs and the practices of the pagan Arabs, it appears that it
was a most appropriate name. The Arabs were the devotees of a variety
of “religions” which can be classified into the following
categories.
1.
Idol-worshippers or polytheists. Most of the Arabs were idolaters.
They worshipped numerous idols and each tribe had its own idol or
idols and fetishes. They had turned the Kaaba in Makkah, which
according to tradition, had been built by the Prophet Abraham and his
son, Ismael, and was dedicated by them to the service of One God,
into a heathen pantheon housing 360 idols of stone and wood.
2. Atheists
This group was composed of the materialists and believed that the
world was eternal.
3. Zindiqs
They were influenced by the Persian doctrine of dualism in nature.
They believed that there were two gods representing the twin forces
of good and evil or light and darkness, and both were locked up in an
unending struggle for supremacy.
4. Sabines.
They worshipped the stars.
5. Jews
When the Romans destroyed Jerusalem in A.D. 70, and drove the Jews
out of Palestine and Syria, many of them found new homes in Hijaz in
Arabia. Under their influence, many Arabs also became converts to
Judaism. Their strong centers were the towns of Yathrib, Khayber,
Fadak and Umm-ul-Qura.
6.
Christians. The Romans had converted the north Arabian tribe of
Ghassan to Christianity. Some clans of Ghassan had migrated to and
had settled in Hijaz. In the south, there were many Christians in
Yemen where the creed was originally brought by the Ethiopian
invaders. Their strong center was the town of Najran.
7.
Monotheists There was a small group of monotheists present in Arabia
on the eve of the rise of Islam. Its members did not worship idols,
and they were the followers of the Prophet Abraham. The members of
the families of Muhammad, the future prophet, and Ali ibn Abi Talib,
the future caliph, and most members of their clan – the Banu Hashim
– belonged to this group.
Among the
Arabs there were extremely few individuals who could read and write.
Most of them were not very eager to learn these arts. Some historians
are of the opinion that the culture of the period was almost entirely
oral. The Jews and the Christians were the custodians of such
knowledge as Arabia had.
Life and
work of Muhammad
Muhammad is
the founder and chief prophet of Islam
and the source for the Quran.
“Muhammad” - whose name means “highly praised” - was born in
Mecca
in 570 AD. His father died shortly before his birth, and he lost his
mother at the age of six. Muhammad was then raised primarily by his
uncle, for whom he worked as a shepherd. At age 9 (some sources say
12), he joined his uncle on a caravan to Syria.
As a young
man, Muhammad worked as a camel driver between Syria and Arabia. Soon
he established a career managing caravans on behalf of merchants.
Through his travel first with his uncle and later in his career,
Muhammad came into contact with people of many nationalities and
faiths, including Jews, Christians and pagans.
At age 25,
Muhammad was employed by Khadija, a wealthy Meccan widow 15 years his
senior. The two were married, and by all accounts had a loving and
happy marriage. Although polygamy was common practice at the time,
Muhammad took no other wife until her death 24 years later.
In Muslim
tradition, Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) is viewed as the last in
a series of law-bearing prophets.
During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE,
according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported
revelations that he believed to be from God conveyed to him through
the archangel
Gabriel (Jibril).
The content of these revelations, known as the Qur’an, was
memorized and recorded by his companions.
During this
time, Muhammad
in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon
polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam,
Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan
authorities. This resulted in the Migration
to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite
Empire). Many early converts to Islam, were the poor and former
slaves like Bilal
ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite felt that Muhammad was
destabilising their social order by preaching about one God, racial
equality and in the process giving ideas to the poor and their
slaves.
After 12
years of the persecution
of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan
boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammad’s relatives, Muhammad and
the Muslims performed the Hijra
(“emigration”) to the city of Medina
(formerly known as Yathrib)
in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar)
and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun),
Muhammad in
Medina established his political and religious
authority. A state was established in accordance with Islamic
economic jurisprudence. The Constitution
of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and
responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan
communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community
— the Ummah.
The
Constitution established: the security of the community, religious
freedoms, the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence
and weapons), the security of women, stable tribal relations within
Medina, a tax system for supporting the community in time of
conflict, parameters for exogenous political alliances, a system for
granting protection of individuals, and a judicial system for
resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws.
All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all
external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a
few years, two battles were fought against the Meccan forces: first,
the Battle of
Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and then a year later,
when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle
of Uhud, which ended inconclusively.
The Arab
tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during
the Battle
of the Trench besieged Medina intent on finishing off Islam. In
628, the Treaty
of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was
broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty
of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same
time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought
surrounding desert tribes under his control. By 629 Muhammad was
victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest
of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62)
he united the tribes
of Arabia into a single religious polity.
The
first four Khalifas
After the
death of Prophet Muhammad in 632AD, the leaders of the Muslim nation
came to be called as the Khalifas or Caliphs. They were also called
the Khalifat Rasul
Allah, the political
successors to Prophet Muhammad. The word Caliph is taken from the
Arabic word Khalifa which means successor or substitute.
Although
there were some disagreements regarding who would lead the Ummah
after Prophet Muhammad died, Abu Bakr, the father-in-law of the
Prophet was chosen to be the successor. He was then followed by Umar,
Uthman and Ali. The first four Caliphs are commonly known by Sunni
Muslims to be rightly guided successors (Rashidun). Meanwhile, the
Shia Muslims regard the first three to be supplanters and claim that
Ali was the rightful successor. Whatever the case is, the Abbasids
came to power after Ali’s death, then it passed on to Fatimids,
Ottomans and others.
Abu Bakr
(573-634 CE)
Abu Bakr
became the first Caliph and he ruled from 632-634. He was the father
in law of Prophet Muhammad (his daughter Aisha was married to Prophet
Muhammad). During his reign, many Arabian tribes rebelled against
him. Though these tribes claimed to submit to Muhammad, they said
they owe nothing to Abu Bakr. But Abu Bakr succeeded in crushing the
rebellion by the end of 633. His fight against these tribes was known
as the Ridda Wars or the Wars of Apostasy. Abu Bakr also continued
the expansionist policy and launched campaigns against the Sassanid
Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. On August 634, Abu Bakr became
sick and, on his deathbed, appointed Umar to succeed him.
Umar
(634-644 CE)
Umar began
his reign on August 23, 634. Under him, the Caliphate expanded very
fast so that it now encompasses the whole Sassanid Empire and more
than two thirds of the Byzantine Empire. Besides his military
prowess, Umar was a just and pious ruler. Since Abu Bakr did not have
much time to establish any administrative system, Umar began to
establish a system that would hold the empire together. In the field
of administration, the empire was divided into provinces and some
autonomous territories ruled over by governors or Walis.
He was the first to establish a department where people can make
complaints against the officers. He also made records of his
officials and soldiers, and he also established a police force to
maintain order within the empire.
Umar
established an advanced administration system to look after conquered
lands and people, allowed Christians and Jews to live in Iraq and
Syria, permitted Jewish families to resettle in Jerusalem, ordered
that Christians and Jews should be treated well and started an
allowance for the poor. In 639, Umar decreed that the Islamic
calendar should begin from the year of the Hijra, that is, the year
of the emigration of Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. In 644,
Umar was assassinated by a Persian named Pirouz, in response to the
Muslim conquest of Persia. On his deathbed, Umar appointed a
committee comprising of six persons. Until the appointment of a new
Caliph, Umar appointed Suhayb ar-Rumi as a caretaker Caliph. Umar
died on November 7, 644 and the committee chose Uthman to be the next
Caliph.
Usman
(644-656 CE)
Uthman
succeeded Umar on November 11, 644 and he continued the laws and
policies made by Umar. During his rule, the empire extended to
Morocco in the west to Pakistan in the east, and to Armenia in the
north. The first six years of his reign was marked by peace. He was
known to have sent several official Muslim envoys to different
countries. Uthman introduced several economic reforms so that the
Muslim Empire was economically prosperous. This also resulted in the
erection and building of many great buildings, mosques, canals and
military barracks. Uthman was perhaps best known for his formation of
committees to produce multiple copies of the Quran.
Meanwhile,
in his attempt to keep the empire together, he had appointed members
of his own clan, the Umayyads, as governors in Egypt, Syria, Basra
and Kufa. After a tranquil reign of six years, anti-Uthman sentiments
came to the fore. There were complaints about the tyranny of Uthman’s
governors in the provinces. This, however, is a great moot point and
this assignment is no place to treat it in detail. The result is that
agitations and rebellion broke out that finally led to the murder of
Uthman by rebels in 656.
Ali
(656-661 CE)
Ali ibn Abi
Talib was the cousin as well as the son in law of Prophet Muhammad.
Historically, though Ali was the fourth Caliph; but to the Shia
Muslims, Ali was the first and rightful successor to Prophet
Muhammad. The Sunnis consider him the fourth and final Rashidun. Ali
was the first male to convert to Islam and had participated in almost
all the battles fought by the early Muslim community.
Ali was
appointed as the Caliph in 656 after Uthman was murdered. But the
entirety of his reign as the Caliph was marked by civil war, also
known as the First Fitna. Members of the Quraish tribe turned against
him because he defended the Hashimites, a clan of the Quraish to
which Prophet Muhammad belonged. He was also attacked because he
failed to bring the murderers of Uthman to justice. Muawiyah, the
governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman was his foremost opponent.
Meanwhile, Ali also had to deal with the rebellion of Talhah and
Zubayr who were joined by Aisha, daughter of Abu Bakr and third wife
of Muhammad. Ali defeated these rebels in the Battle of the Camel in
656.
After a
battle with Muawiyah in 657, called the battle of Siffin, there was
an arbitration which Ali lost. Muawiyah continued to be defiant and
Muawiyah defeated Ali’s forces in Egypt. Considering this
arbitration to be in violation of the teachings of the Quran, some
groups again rebelled against Ali. They were, however, still against
Muawiyah. Ali defeated these groups at Al-Nahawan in 658. They came
to be known as the Karijites.
Ali’s
authority became so weak that many prominent Muslims though of
deposing him along with Muawiyah so that a son of Umar could become
the Caliph. Ali was finally assassinated by the Karijites in 661
while he was praying in Kufa.
The
subsequent expansion of Islam
Phase I:
Early Caliphs and Umayyads (610–750 CE)
Islam
was introduced in Somalia
in the 7th century when the Muslim Arabs fled from the persecution of
the Pagan Quraysh
tribe. When the Muslims defeated the Pagans, some returned to Arabia,
but many decided to stay there and established Muslim communities
along the Somali coastline. The local Somalis adopted the Islamic
faith well before the faith even took root in its place of origin.
The caliphs
of the Umayyad dynasty established the first schools inside the
empire, called madrasas,
which taught the Arabic language and Islamic studies. They
furthermore began the ambitious project of building mosques across
the empire, many of which remain today as the most magnificent
mosques in the Islamic world, such as the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus.
At the end of the Umayyad period, less than 10% of the people in
Iran, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia and Spain were Muslim. Only on the
Arabian peninsula was the proportion of Muslims among the population
higher than this.
Phase
II: The Abbasids (750–1258)
Expansion
ceased and the central disciplines of Islamic philosophy,
theology,
law and
mysticism
became more widespread and the gradual conversions of the populations
within the empire occurred. Significant conversions also occurred
beyond the extents of the empire such as that of the Turkic
tribes in Central
Asia and peoples living in regions south of the Sahara
in Africa through
contact with Muslim traders active in the area and Sufi
orders. In Africa it spread along three routes, across the Sahara
via trading towns such as Timbuktu,
up the Nile Valley
through the Sudan
up to Uganda and
across the Red Sea
and down East
Africa through settlements such as Mombasa
and Zanzibar.
These initial conversions were of a flexible nature and only later
were the societies forcibly purged of their traditional influences.
Phase
III: Dissolution of the Abbasids and the emergence of the Seljuks and
Ottomans (950-1450)
The
expansion of Islam continued in the wake of Turkic
conquests of Asia
Minor, the Balkans,
and the Indian
subcontinent. The earlier period also saw the acceleration in the
rate of conversions in the Muslim heartland while in the wake of the
conquests the newly conquered regions retained significant non-Muslim
populations in contrast to the regions where the boundaries of the
Muslim world contracted, such as Sicily
and Al Andalus,
where Muslim populations were expelled or forced to Christianize
in short order. The latter period of this phase was marked by the
Mongol
invasion (particularly the siege
of Baghdad in 1258) and after an initial period of persecution,
the conversion of these conquerors to Islam.
Phase
IV: Ottoman Empire: 1299 – 1924
The Ottoman
Empire defended its frontiers initially against threats from
several sides: the Safavids
on the Eastern side, the Byzantine
Empire in the North which vanished with the Conquest
of Constantinople in 1453, and the great Catholic powers from the
Mediterranean Sea: Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and Venice with its
eastern Mediterranean colonies.
Later, the
Ottoman Empire set on to conquer territories from these rivals:
Cyprus and other Greek islands (except Crete) were lost by Venice to
the Ottomans, and the latter conquered territory up to the Danube
basin as far as Hungary. Crete was conquered during the 17th century,
but the Ottomans lost Hungary to the Holy Roman Empire, and other
parts of Eastern Europe, ending with the Treaty
of Carlowitz in 1699.
Phase V:
Post-Ottoman Empire to the present
Islam has
continued to spread through commerce and migrations; especially in
Southeast Asia,
America and
Europe.
Division
between Sunni and Shia
Sunni
The largest
denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all
Muslims. Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl
as-Sunnah which means
“people of the tradition [of Muhammad]”. These hadiths,
recounting Muhammad’s words, actions, and personal characteristics,
are preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub
Al-Sittah (six major books).
Sunnis
believe that the first four caliphs
were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify
any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected.
Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a
caliph but they have to act according to the Qur’an and the Hadith,
the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.
The Sunnis
follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found
in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four madh’habs
(schools of thought): Hanafi,
Hanbali, Maliki
and Shafi’i,
established around the teachings of Abū
Ḥanīfa, Ahmad
bin Hanbal, Malik
ibn Anas and al-Shafi’i
respectively.
All four
accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one
that he or she finds agreeable. The Salafi (also known as Ahl
al-Hadith, or the pejorative term Wahhabi
by its adversaries) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes
the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.
Shia
The Shia
constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.
While the
Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community,
Shia’s believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali
ibn Abi Talib, as his successor and only certain descendants of
Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that Ali
ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam
(leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu
Bakr, Uthman
ibn al-Affan and Umar
ibn al-Khattab.
Shia Islam
has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers,
followed by Zaidis
and Ismailis.
Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams.
After the death of Imam Jafar
al-Sadiq considered the sixth Imam by the Twelvers,
and the Ismaili‘s,
the Ismailis started to consider his son Isma’il ibn Jafar as the
Imam and the Twelver Shia’s (Ithna Asheri) started to consider his
other son Musa al-Kazim as their seventh Imam. While the Zaydis
consider Zayd ibn
Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar
al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam.
Other
smaller groups include the Bohra
and Druze, as well
as the Alawites
and Alevi. Some Shia
branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their
doctrine as Ghulat.
Islam in
India from the 10th
to 15th
centuries
Indian
Muslims are descendants of the large numbers of peoples of mixed race
who entered India from the west and north-west over the centuries,
beginning with the Arab invasion to Sindh, but the great majority are
the descendants of local converts over the centuries.
Sindh had
come under Arab domination and, from 724; it came under direct rule
of the governor of Kufa. Mahmud of Ghazna led numerous attack into
India between 1001 and 1027. He established his rule only in the
Punjab as his overriding purpose was to carry off as much of India’s
wealth as he could. The Ghurids(from present day Afghanistan) had
taken control of the Punjab by 1185 and, in 1192, Delhi and other
places were conquered and Muhammad returned home, leaving Qutbuddin
Aibak in charge. Ayodhya and Varanasi were captured. By 1202 Nadia,
the capital of Bengal had fallen into his hands. The chronicles speak
of the capture and sack of the fortress of Bihar and the killing of
monks. In 1206 Qutbuddin Aibak became the first Sultan of Delhi.
During the initial conquests a number of temples were torn down and
the materials were often used to construct mosques.
Arab
traders had long been trading with South India. Over the centuries
they settled in coastal regions of Kerala and married local women.
There was a natural increase, mostly in the port towns. This was the
origin of many of the Muslims of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The first
military thrust South was under ‘Ala ud-din Khalji(1226-1316),
mainly for booty and tribute. He did not attempt to impose direct
rule. It was Muhammad bin Tughluq(1325-51) who attempted to do this
and, in 1327, forcibly moved many inhabitants from Delhi to
Daulatabad in an attempt to make of it a second capital. Hence, a
Muslim kingdom arose in the South, the Bahmani kingdom which, in
turn, split up into several kingdoms. In addition there was the
powerful Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. It is interesting to notice
that both the Muslim sultanates and the Vijayanagar kingdom employed
Muslim officials as well as Hindu ones.
By the time
of Firuz Shah(1351-88), the complete imposition of Shari’at rule is
enforced. Yet, in practice, this had not occurred. From the very
beginning there as a mixture 117 of the Shari’at and local,
customary law, a situation which continued right through to the end
of the Mughal period. Some sultans gave more importance to the
Shari’at than others did, but the sultans generally respected much
of the customary law of their Hindu subjects, e.g. with regard to
temple properties and revenues.
We know of
several categories of converts: an occasional one who attained high
office; groups closely connected to the sultan; occupational groups,
e.g. the weavers; and people influenced by the Sufis. There was also
a steady stream of converts due to marriage. The Hindu wives normally
became Muslims, and all children were automatically brought up as
Muslims.
Islam
under the Mogul rulers
Babur’s
victory over Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526 established the
beginnings of the Mughal Empire. It was Akbar (1556-1605) who gave an
extraordinary impetus to repair his empire into a cohesive state
where the religious and cultural heritages of his subjects were not
merely tolerate but even given their rightful place. Some instances
of this are: his employment of many nobles in very high office, e.g.
Man Singh; his granting the Jesuit Fathers written permission to
propagate Christianity; his programme to have the great Hindu
classics, such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan translated into Persian;
his attempt to establish a syncretistic religion for one and all, his
restrictions on the slaughter and consumption of beef as a mark of
sensitivity to the religious sentiments of his Hindu subjects.
In contrast
Akbar’s policy, Aurangzeb (1658-1707) destroyed many Hindu temples;
and levied again the protection tax which had been abolished by
Akbar. For Aurangzeb the final and deepest motive for his actions was
political. He wanted to be Emperor of Hindustan and would allow no
one to stop or challenge him. Nevertheless he cannot be justifiably
accused of a simple anti-Hindu policy for, by the latter part of his
reign, one third of his chief nobles were Hindus, and he made or
renewed grants to many temples. Similarly, there is no proof at all
of a policy of forced conversions, but it is true that some converts
benefited from their conversions, e.g. by receiving land grants. The
factor of natural increase should not be overlooked.
Settled
Arab traders originated the Mappilas of Kerala Muslims. With the
arrival of the Portuguese the Mappilas turned inland where they met
outcastes who were ready to accept Islam in the hope of improving
their socio-economic situation. The conversion of lower caste Hindus
continued. Broadly speaking, the pattern is the same as in Kerala,
with Arab traders being the first to bring Islam to Tamil Nadu and,
later on, significant conversions occurring among lower Hindu castes
largely for socio-economic reasons.
Islam
under Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan
was responsible for many forced conversions to Islam. He turned
against the Christians of coastal Kanara in 1784 and forcibly deport
some 30,000 to Mysore where the males were “honored with Islam”
–a euphemism for forced circumcision. Coorg was also attacked and a
similar fate was meted out to many of its inhabitants. In much the
same way some 2000 Nairs, on being offered the choice between Islam
or deportation to Seringapatam, chose the former. Tipu was also
responsible for mass executions.
Thus, while
the facts about forcible conversion are clear, the motivation is
highly complex. Tipu’s father, Haider Ali, was a stern monarch who
had no qualms about using severe punishments. Indeed, on one occasion
he had the young Tipu publicly flogged for his unacceptable behavior!
He showed, however, no trait of religious bigotry. Hence Tipu’s
attitude was not inherited from his father. Rather it seems to stem
ultimately from a personality which was as complex as it was
tyrannical. On the one hand he was tyrannical, bigoted and
self-opiniated; while on the other he was brave, industrious, simple
in matters of dress and personal convenience; extremely modest in his
person; given to listening to religious reading while eating; and
insistent that there should be no coarse or vulgar language in his
court. In addition, his most trusted adviser was a Brahmin minister
upon whom he greatly relied.
Islam
during the Indian renaissance
The 19th
century is very important period in history of India. It was a period
during which English educated Indians were determined to reform
Indian culture, society and religion. The English educated Indians,
sought inspiration from Vedas and Upanishad. They were also
influenced by western scientific thoughts the Hindu leaders kike raja
ram Mohan Rai, Debendranath Tagore, Keshav Chandra Sen, M.G Ranade,
Atmaram Pandurangan, Swami Dayanand Saraswathi, swami Vivekananda and
a host of others set out to reform Hindu religion and society. They
condemned evils and abuses that had crept into Hinduism. The regality
of caste system, sati, child marriage, unsociability, ideal worship,
polytheism etc. they wanted to purge Hinduism of all these social
evils and thus restore its pristine purity and ancient glory. The
movement towards this goal is called, as “the Indian renaissance”
was to prepare the ground for nationalism.
The
Aligarh Movement: Renaissance
among the Muslims dawned much late because they were not in favors of
English education. It was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan an English educated
Muslim who was responsible for inspiring the Muslims and for
developing western scientific thoughts among the Muslims.
Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan (1819-1898): Functioned
as a lawyer under the English. He wanted to reform the Islamic
community. He was strongly infavour of the Muslims learning English
and developing western scientific thought at the same time he held
the Quran as the only authoritative Islamic texts. He was against
blind obedience of customs, rituals and blind believes in rationalism
and freethinking. He was also strong advocate of Hindu –Muslim
unity. He said that Hindus and Muslims are the two-glimming eyes of
the bride that is India. As Sir Syed Ahmed Khan believed that
education especially English and western subjects alone would reform
and rationalize the Islamic society. He started schools one such
schools is the Mohan Madan Anglo oriental school which later became
the Aligarh Muslim university. Its first principal was an English man
Theodore beck. English support of education land question
representative institute made Sir Syed Ahmed Khan a loyal supporter
of the English, which made him communal and develop separatist
tendencies. He even called the Muslims as separate nation. Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan who wanted the Muslims inculcate western scientific
thought. Thus began the Aligharh movement. The center of its
activities was Aligharh in Uttar parades. The movement was against
worshiping of saint that is Monds and peers the movement fought for
improving the status of women by encouraging education by criticizing
polygamy, child marriage, polygamy and divorce.
Muslims
in independent India
India’s
Muslim population is the world’s
third largest and the world’s largest Muslim-minority
population. Officially, India has the third largest Muslim population
next to Indonesia
and Pakistan.
India is home to 10% of the world’s Muslim population. India has a
rough estimate of 176 million Muslims, but the actual number is
expected to be higher. Records show India has more Muslims than
Pakistan. (A dang chu phuok el ding)
- The four foundations: Quran, Sunna/Hadith, Ijma and Qiyas
Four
Foundations: Quran, Sunna, Jima, Qiyas
1. Quran
The word
Quran comes from the root qr’, meaning to “repeat”, or
‘recite”. Muslims believe the Quran as the foundation and
cornerstone of Islam and the Prophet’s revelation as the ultimate
and final disclosure of God’s will. The central message of the
Quran is the Shahada(confession): “La Illahi Illa ‘Illah
Muhammadun Rasul Allah.”(There is no god but Allah, and Mohammed is
the prophet of Allah.” The Quran is not a book on theological
discourse; rather a resource book for spiritual reflection and
genuine worship. The Quran teaches that all Muslims must obey Allah’s
command.
Compilation,
Structure and Contents of the Quran
Regarding
the inspiration Muslim believed that Quran was revealed to Mohammed,
in one single night called the ‘Power of Night’ (Lailat-al-qadr).
Another view is that Quran was revealed over a period of 23 years
according to the needs of the people. Initially Quran was handed down
to the next generation through their memories. It was written down
during the time of Mohammed. Quran is the basic foundation from which
the Muslims derived their inspiration in the following years.
The
chapters (suras) were collected and compiled, all 114 of them, and
arranged in order of length except the first chapter, Fatiha, which
contains a short prayer. The chapters vary in length and contain from
a few to over 200 verses in a chapter. The second chapter is the
longest chapter with 286 verses. The last chapters are the smallest
ones with three to six verses. With the exception of Sura 9, seach
sura is prefaced with the basmalla, the statement “In the name of
God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.” The Muslims strongly believe
not only the revelation of the Quran but also the compilation of the
Book being divinely ordained. Each sura is divided into verses(aya,
ayat), which were not originally marked in the manuscripts. This is
the reason why there have been differences of opinion about the
division and numbering of the verses. This can be seen in the
differences between the numbering of the Quranic verses by many
Orientalists: Flugel edition(6326 verses), Fu’ad edition(6204
verses). There are also other divisions of the Quran for the purpose
of recitation. The headings of the suras usually refer to a prominent
word or episode in the sura itself and they seem not to have been
present in the beginning but were introduced later for reference
purpose. The Islamic scholars divide the suras of the Quran under two
broad periods: (a) revelation given to the Prophet when he was a
Messenger at Mecca; and (b) revelation given to the Prophet when he
emigrated to Medina. The Meccan revelations are characterized by
vivid descriptions of the final judgment, the punishment of
disobedient sinners, and the rewards of the righteous. The Medinan
suras also are interspersed with the same Meccan theme along with
some newly introduced legal, political, moral, and spiritual matters
in relation to the Islamic umma. Some of the themes which are common
both in Meccan and Medinan suras are the Oneness of God, the final
judgment and the acknowledgment of Mohammed as prophet.
2.
Sunna(h)/Hadith
The word
sunnah literally means a clear, well-trodden road. In the discussion
of the sources of religion, Sunnah refer to the practice of Prophet
Muhammad that he taught and practically instituted as a teacher of
the Sharia’t and the best exemplar. The sunnah includes Muhammad’s
specific words, habits, practices and silent approvals: it is
significant because it addresses ways of life dealing with friends,
family and government. The sunnah is consulted after referring to the
Quran, if the issue is not addressed there. Sunnah often stands as
synonymous with hadith since sunnah was noted down by his companions
in hadith. Early Sunni scholars often considered sunnah equivalent to
the biography of Mohammad. Sunnah came often to be known mostly
through the hadith. Classical Islam often equate the sunnah with the
hadith. Many believes that along with divine revelation the sunnah
was directly taught by God. The sunnah, thus, in one form or another,
is to retain its central role in providing a moral example and
ethical guidance.
3.
Jima(Ijma)
While the
sunna is the divinely inspired conduct of the Prophet as the
authoritative religious source next to that of Quran, jima is
consensus of opinion. “How will you decide when a question arises?”
He replied: “According to the Book of Allah”-”And if you do not
find the answer in the Book of Allah?” - “Then according to the
Sunna of the messenger of Allah”. –”And if you do not find the
answer either in the Sunna or in the book?”-”Then I shall come to
a decision according to my own opinion (Qiyas, analogy) without
hesitation.”
4. Qiyas
In Islamic
jurisprudence, qiyās
is the process of deductive
analogy in which the teachings of the Hadith
are compared and contrasted with those of the Qur’an,
in order to apply a known injunction
(nass) to
a new circumstance and create a new injunction. Here the ruling of
the Sunnah and the
Qur’an may be used as a means to solve or provide a response to a
new problem that may arise. This, however, is only the case providing
that the set precedent
or paradigm and the new problem that has come about will share
operative causes. The illah is the specific set of circumstances that
trigger a certain law
into action.
- The five pillars of Islam: Confession of Faith (Tashahhud), Five daily prayers (Salat), Fasting (Saum), Alms giving or poor tax (Zakat) and Pilgrimage (Hajj); Muslim High Days (Bakr-Id, Idul Fitr, Bara Wafat, Akhir-i-Chahar Shamba, Shab-i-barat and Muharram).
The Five
Pillars of Islam
1.Profession
of faith (Shahadat).
The first pillar of Islam is the profession of faith (shahadat)
“There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the Apostle of God (La
ilaha illallah wa Muhammadun rasulullah)”.
2.
Ritual prayer (Salat/Namaz)
is the supreme act of worship and most important obligatory
observance in Islam. Salat comprises five daily services: Fajr-the
early morning prayer, offered after the dawn and before sunrise.
Zuhr-the noon prayer. Asr-the mid-afternoon prayer. Maghrib-the
sunset prayer.’Isha-the evening prayer.
3.
Zakat: In Islam two
terms are used for almsgiving. Sadaqat is almsgiving in general. It
may be given not only at the time of festival like Sadaqatul-Fitr,
the feast of the breaking of the Fast of Ramazan, but also at any
time and in any amount. Zakat is a permanent and definite
establishment for the purpose of giving charity and showing concern
for the poor. In Islamic parlance, zakat is an annual tax on the
property which remained in the possession of a person for a whole
year, when its value is within a certain limit, called nisab. To call
a tax which is, in effect, a reduction of wealth ‘growth’ may be
either in reference to the poor who are expected to ‘grow’ on it
or, more likely, an expression of hope that it will be more than
compensated for by God’s blessings.
4. Islam
prescribes fasting
during the month of Ramazan, as a duty for Muslims. Fasting means
abstinence from food, drink, smoking and sexual activity from dawn to
sunset, during the entire month of Ramazan, the ninth month of the
Islamic year. Fasting is obligatory for all Muslims, male or female,
who are adults, sound in mind and physically fit. Women who are in
the period of menstruation or of confinement are not allowed to fast
even if they can and want to. They must postpone the fast till
recovery and then make up for it. Children who have not reached the
age of puberty and the insane are exempted from the duty of fasting.
Old men and women who are too feeble to undertake the fast and who
are unable to bear its hardships are exempted from this obligation.
However, they must offer to at least one Muslim who is needy and poor
one full meal or its value each day. So also sick people whose health
is likely to be severely affected by the observance of fasting may
postpone the fast to a later date and make up for it, a day for a
day. Likewise, people who are in the course of travelling a distance
about fifty miles or more may break the fast temporarily during their
travel and make up for it later on. Expectants mothers and
breast-feeding mothers may also break the fast.
5.
Haji-Pilgrimage to Mecca: It
is the duty of every Muslim to undertake the pilgrimage once in his
lifetime, according to certain conditions: He must be an adult, in
good physical and mental health, and be able to bear the expenses of
the journey and also maintain his family during his absence. A woman
may perform the pilgrimage only with her husband’s permission and
must be accompanied either by him or by some other trustworthy man. A
Muslim may undertake the pilgrimage by proxy too. Even after a
person’s death the pilgrimage can be undertaken on his behalf by a
substitute. No Haji is valid if performed on credit or by means of
begging.
The tawaf
or going around the Ka’ba is the first religious act to be
performed in Mecca. Next he goes to the rear by the Place of Abraham,
says a prayer of two rak’ats, and from there to the Zamzam well and
then to the place where the tombs of Hagar and Ishmael are said to be
located.
On the
seventh day of Dhul-Hijja, the month of hajj, the pilgrimage begins
by listening to a sermon in the great mosque which follows
immediately midday prayer. It gives counsel to the pilgrims and
supplies a kind of programme of the ceremonies in which they are to
take part.
On the
eighth day of the month of hajj, the throng of pilgrims on foot or on
various means of transport move on towards ‘Arafat about thirteen
miles from Mecca. Between noon and sunset the pilgrim must remain
“standing before the Lord” in the plain of ‘Arafat. This act of
standing is called wuquf and this is the centre and essential part of
the pilgrimage. If a pilgrim misses the wuquf, even partly, his
pilgrimage is invalid. Most of the time is occupied by two
khutbas(sermons) read out by the chief Qazi(judge) of Mecca. The
pilgrims then set out for Mina. On arrival in Mina each pilgrim
throws seven pebbles at the jamrat al-’Aqaba, one of three pillars
there. The action is accompanied by the words “in the name of
Allah, Allah is Great”. The ceremony is interpreted as the stoning
of Satan who had tried to induce Abraham to ignore God’s command to
sacrifice his son, Ishmael. After throwing the stones, the pilgrim
returns to Mina and offers the sacrifice there. Part of the flesh is
eaten by the pilgrim, while part is given to the poor. After the
sacrifice, one’s hair is cut completely or merely trimmed, the
nails are cut etc. the pilgrim goes to Mecca to perform tawaf. After
this, he returns to Mina where he spends the last three days of the
pilgrimage in rejoicing. All restrictions are now removed and people
spend three days in eating, drinking and rejoicing. Some pilgrims go
to Medina to visit the prophet’s grave while others may even go to
Jerusalem.
Muslim
High Days (Bakr-Id, Idul Fitr, Bara Wafat, Akhir-i-Chahar Shamba,
Shab-i-barat and Muharram).
Bakr-Id
or Eid al-Adha
Eid al-Adha
meaning “Festival of the sacrifice, also called the Feast of the
Sacrifice the “Major Festival”, the “Greater Eid”, Baqr’Eid,
or Tabaski (West Africa), is the second of two religious
holidays celebrated by Muslims
worldwide each year. It honors the willingness of Abraham
(Ibrahim)
to sacrifice his promised son, Ishmael
(Ismail),
as an act of submission to God‘s
command, before God then intervened, through his angel Gabriel
(Jibra’il) and informs him that his sacrifice has already been
accepted. The meat from the sacrificed animal is preferred to be
divided into three parts. The family retains one third of the share;
another third is given to relatives, friends and neighbors; and the
remaining third is given to the poor and needy.
Idul
Fitr
The
observance of the fast of Ramazan and the commemoration of the
Laylatul-Qadr, “the Night of Power and Destiny. The whole month of
Ramazan, in spite of the rigors of the fast during the day-time, is
marked by a festive mood. For iftar (the meal of breaking the fast in
the evening) members of the wider family and/or neighbours are
invited and food is set apart and sent to the mosque to be
distributed to travelers and to needy people. In our days it has
become common custom for public figures, especially politicians, to
host big iftar meals.
Bara
Wafat
The
festival of Barah Wafat on the twelfth day of the third month
Rabi’ul-Awwal, originally, in South Asia, commemorated the twelve
days of the Prophet’s sickness ending in death. Nowadays it has
become common practice in the Subcontinent to join the rest of the
Muslim world in celebrating the increasingly popular feast of the
Birthday of the Prophet(‘Idul-Milad or, fuller, ‘Id
Miladun-nabi). T mark the day special functions are organized in
which poery in praise of the Prophet is recited and discourses are
delivered describing the excellence, achievements and contemporary
relevance of the Prophet Muhammad who is rahmat ul-’alamin, “the
mercy for the worlds.” Not unlike on Diwali festival, the houses
are decorated and illuminated.
Akhir-i-chahar
Shamba
Akhri Chhar
Shamba means last Wednesday in the month of Safar. On this day
Prophet Muhammad found himself enough to walk around for the first
time, after a severe illness.
Shab-i-Barat
The 15th
night of Shabaan is known as SHAB-e-BARAAT,which
is next to Lailatul Qadir (27th night of Ramadaan) in auspiciousness.
On this night which begins from Magrib salaah Azan, the AMAL NAMA
(record book) of a person containing all his deeds of the past year
are closed and kept away in preservation till the day of resurrection
and new Record books are started. Also,on this night,the various
angels in charge of births, deaths, etc, are brieffed and are
assigned and instructed by ALMIGHTY ALLAH their various duties-the
names and number of people who are to die during the coming year,
births and the dates and times they are to take place during the
coming year.
Muharram
Muharram
is the first month of the Islamic
calendar. It is one of the four sacred months of the year. Since
the Islamic calendar
is a lunar
calendar, Muharram moves from year to year when compared with the
Gregorian
calendar.
The word
“Muharram” means “Forbidden” and is derived from the word
harām, meaning
“sinful”. It is held to be the most sacred of all the months,
excluding Ramadan.
Some Muslims fast
during these days. The tenth day of Muharram is the Day
of Ashura, which to Shia
Muslims is part of the Mourning
of Muharram.
Some
Muslims fast during this day, because it is recorded in the hadith
that Musa
(Moses) and his
people obtained a victory over the Egyptian
Pharaoh on the 10th day of Muharram; accordingly Muhammad
asked Muslims to
pray on this day that is Ashura and on a day before that is 9th
(called Tasu`a).
Fasting
differs among the Muslim groupings; many Shia Muslims stop eating and
drinking during sunlight hours and do not eat until late afternoon.
Sunni Muslims also fast during Muharram for the first ten days of
Muharram, or just the tenth day, or on both the ninth and tenth days;
the exact term depends on the individual. Shia Muslims do so to
commemorate the martyrdom of Hussein
ibn Ali on the Day
of Ashura.
- The Six Articles of Faith: Belief in God, Angels, Scriptures, Prophets, Resurrection, the day of judgment, and predestination
Islam
teaches six major articles of faith which serve as a guide to every
God-fearing Muslim: Belief in God,Allah(divine unity, Tawhid), Angels
who intercede for humanity, Belief in the Quran, belief in the
Prophets, accepting Mohammed as the Seal of the Prophets.Belief in
the Resurrection, Judgment, paradise, and hell.Belief in divine
decrees and predestination.
1.
Belief in God: The
Muslims believe that Allah is the only god and Mohammed is the
prophet of god. Attributes of god negated in Islam. God is abstract
and therefore god can not be explained in human terms.
2.
Belief in Angels:
Muslims believed in the existence of angels. Angels are unseen beings
act as intermediates between god and humans.
3.
Belief in the books of God: The
various books have been sent by God to various prophets on earth.
4.
Belief in the Prophets:
Muslims believed in all the Old Testament prophets. Adam is the first
prophet and Mohammed is the last prophet. The Major Prophets are
Adam, Abraham, Moses, Noah, Jesus and Mohammed.
5.
Belief in the Day of Judgment and Resurrection:
Muslims believed that the end of this world will be marked by the Day
of Judgment and Resurrection. There are lesser signs and greater
signs that proclaim the Day of Judgment.
6.
Belief in Pre-destination:
Muslims believed the pre-destination of good and evil.
- Muslim Festivals (a chungah hrilin a um ta leiin ei belsa ta naw a nih)
- Sufism: A brief history and characteristics; the Sufi orders in India, Darghah worship
Hujwiri(d.
around 1071), in his Kashf ul-Mahjub(the Revelation of What is
Veiled), said that the word, Sufi,
comes from the word for wool(suf)
because they wore woolen garments in
imitation of Christian ascetics.
Qushairi(d. 1074) pointed out that a group of ascetics in Kufa began
to be known as ‘Sufis’. He says that some people who were not
content to lead worldly lives separated
themselves from others
and began to lead more
devoted lives. Muslim
argues that Sufism is a purely Islamic phenomenon which originated
with Muhammad based entirely on the Quran. Yet Christian Orientalist
holds that Sufism is a
reaction to dry, formal Islam, inspired by Christian influences.
The Sufi,
like other mystics as well, yearns
for the deeper satisfaction
which cannot be found in any creature. An Indian Sufi, Sharafuddin
Maneri, has put it thus: “A Sufi is a person who is completely lost
to himself, exists only in God, is freed from the hold of his lower
self, and intimate union with God, the Source of all reality and
truth.” As is clear from this definition Maneri’s focus is on a
Sufi as a mystic rather than as a Muslim,
for there is nothing specifically Islamic in his definition.
Sufisim
in India began its
real history with the arrival of Mu’inuddin
Chishti. Legend has
him travelling extensively in Islamic lands, meeting many eminent
Sufis, and settling down in Amjer in 1192 and died in 1236. The fact
that hundreds of thousands of pilgrims are still attracted to his
shrine each year during the celebration of his feast day is clear
proof of his popularity, although he did write nothing. Faiduddin,
popularly known as “Baba
Farid,” is another
of the great Sufis of the Chishti order. The early Chishti Sufis had
an aversion to writing. One act of asceticism commonly attributed to
Baba Farid was his having spent forty nights suspended by a rope tied
around his legs. He would be hauled up each morning and spend the day
in prayer. Other versions speak of six months or even ten years!
There was an ascetical practice of a forty-day retreat(chillah) well
established among the Sufis. Baba Farid’s successor, Nizamuddhin
Auliya(d. 1325) has
left an indelible imprint on Delhi. He was indeed a loving, lovable
and inspiring spiritual guide to many. One of his great achievements
was that he attracted many disciples to himself from distant places
and then sent them back to their native places. Another striking
feature of Nizamuddin Auliya was the fact that he lived a celibate
life. It ran diametrically counter to what was the Islamic ideal way
of life, even for a Sufi. Nizamuddin’s spiritual successor,
Nasiruddin Chiragh-I Dehlavi(d. 1356) and Gesu Daraz also lived a
celibate life.
Another
order that entered
early into India was that of the Suhrawardis,
the most famous of whom was Baha’uddin
Zakaria Multani(d.
1262). Whereas the Chishti saints eschewed associating with the
Sultan and his nobles in order to embrace a life of austere
simplicity, Baha’uddin followed the example of Abu Hafs Suhrawardi
and mingled freely with the elite and looked after himself and his
family most generously.
The Qadiri
order came to India
only at the end of the fifteenth-century in the person of Sayyid
Muhammad Ghauth(d.
1517). Among his successors, Ahmad
Sirhindi(d. 1624) made
an impact on the Indian scene. Jahangir had him imprisoned for
writing about a vision in which he saw himself above the first four
caliphs. His behavior while in custody impressed the emperor,
however, Jahangir himself became his disciple. He is mainly
remembered as a man who fought tenaciously for a narrow
interpretation of the Law and opposed and often ridiculed all who did
not share his views. This is a mere introduction to the Sufis of
India.
There were
people who had no such affiliation and who often paid scant attention
to the prescriptions of the Islamic Law. These are called Qalandars.
At first they seem to be Hindu yogis for they are often depicted with
little clothing and with shaven heads and beardless faces. They
tended to roam around in groups and had a reputation for bizarre
ascetical practices which were roundly condemned by the theologians,
as was their claim of being beyond the Law. They asserted that they
did not have to bother any more about the five daily prayers, for
example. This was in sharp contrast to the meticulous observance of
the law on the part of the regular Sufis.
- The impact of Islam on Indian history, culture and society, an appraisal
Negative
Impact:
The Muslim
occupation of India accelerated certain undesirable tendencies that
had already manifested themselves in the Hindu society on- the eve of
the Muslim conquest. As pointed out by K.M. Panikkar Indian society
was divided on a vertical basis due to introduction of Islam and
Muslim rule. Before thirteenth century, Hindu society was divided
horizontally. Neither Buddhism nor Jainism could affect this division
but both were easily assimilated. On the contrary, Islam split Indian
society into two distinct divisions from top to bottom – Hindus and
Muslims.
In due
course, these two sections evolved as two separate nations in the
same country. Two parallel societies were vertically established on
the same soil. The proselyting zeal of Islam strengthened bonds of
conservatism in the orthodox circles of their outlook and practice
than what they were in past.
To fortify
their position against the propagation and spread of Islam, the
Hindus introduced of many social taboos and caste rules were made
rigid. Under the impact of Islam continuous progress disappeared from
the life of Hindus.
1. The
Purda System:
Islam and
Muslim rule seriously affected the position of Indian women. The
birth of a girl was looked upon as an inauspicious event.
Consequently, female infanticide spread widely among the Hindu. This
was also adopted by the Hindus in order to avoid the risk of losing
their chastity by the Muslims. The Purda System, the seclusion of
women from men, unknown in early days of Hindu rule, was introduced
in the Hindu society. Women generally lived in seclusion in sphere of
their homes.
2. Child
Marriages and Sati System:
Child
marriage was introduced in society. Gradually, child marriage was
enforced. Early marriage of the Hindu girls to avoid their knapping
by the Muslims became the custom. System of Sati was another social
evilof this period. During Muslim rule the inhuman practice of Sat,
was started. Women were expected to observe strict fidelity in their
conjugal life. The condition of the Hindu women deteriorated
considerably. Dependence of women on their male relatives or husbands
became the prominent feature of the Hindu society.
3.
Slavery:
An
unhealthy feature of social life that crept into Hindu society due to
Muslims was slavery. Slavery was common in the Muslim tradition. It
was a practice among the Sultans. Amirs and nobles to keep both men
and women slaves. This influenced the Hindu chiefs to keep slaves.
Hence, slavery appeared, in India due to Muslims.
4. More
Rigid Caste System:
The
missionary zeal of Islam which aimed at converting the Hindus to
Muslims compelled the Hindus to be orthodox in outlook and practice
to protect their religion and culture from the onslaught of Islam.
Hence attempts were made to make caste rules more rigorous and daily
rules of conduct more rigid. Restrictions regarding caste and
marriage had become more stringent among the Hindus. New rules with
regard to caste and marriage were also prescribed.
5.
Conversions:
When Hindu
society became more rigid and conservative, the miseries of lower
castes increased to a large extent. Due to this reason lower caste
Hindus particularly the untouchables converted to Islam.
Positive
Impact:
The
positive aspects of the impact of Islam on Indian society discussed
as under:
1
Religious Impact:
Islam
brought to India a conception of human equality, pride in one’s
religion, a legal system which was in many ways an advance on the
codes of the time Hindu rulers were influenced to work as the
upholders of Hindu religion. Islam gave the message of universal
brotherhood, introduced equality in society, rejected caste system
and untouchability. In due course, these ideas began to have a
conscious or unconscious effect upon the philosophical Hindu mind and
fostered the growth of liberal movements under religious reformers.
The presence of am paved the way for the growth of the Bhakti cult.
The saints and reformers of fifteenth and sixteenth centuries like
Kabira, Nanak and Srichaitanya preached fundamental equality of all
religions. However, medieval Bhakti cult was in some ways a reply to
the attack of Islam on Hinduism.
2.
Impacts on Upper Class Hindu:
Rich Hindu
classes were influenced by the Mohammedan dress, etiquette,
recreation and other activities. The art of warfare was also
influenced and developed as result of Islamic contact. Food of
Muslims like Biryani, Kabab and Palan etc. were adopted by the
Hindus.
3.
Music:
Indian
music and musical instruments were also influenced by Islam. Indian
musical instruments were modified and new instruments were produced
The Tab la was produced by modification of Hindu musical instrument,
Mridanga. Indian Veena was combined with Iranian Tambura and Sitatar
was produced. A fusion of Hindu and Iranian systems of music led to
the evolution of light songs like quwwalis. Different classical vocal
music of India underwent radical changes as a result of the contact
with Muslim singers.
4.
Architecture:
Assimilation
and synthesis between Hindu and Islamic culture led to evolution of
new styles of architecture. According to Dr. Tarachand, “The
craftsmanship, ornamental richness and general design remained
largely Hindu, the arcaded form, plain doms, smooth-faced walls and
spacious interiors were Muslim impositions.”In the field of
architecture new styles started of which Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Qutab
Minar, Taj Mahal etc. are the living examples.
5. Art
and Craft:
New art and
crafts were introduced in the country; for example, paper-making,
enamellings, metals and jewels etc. Many workshops were setup-for
gold and silver articles and embroidery. The Mughal rulers, except
Aurangzeb, patronised architecture, fine art and paintings. Under
Jahangir painting received considerable fillip.
6.
Language and Literature:
Hindu-Muslim
contact led to linguistic synthesis. Urdu is the outcome of a mixture
of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and of ideas with the concepts
and languages of Sanskrit origin. The Urdu became language of the
people. The Hindi language was also influenced by Muslim contact.
This is distinct in vocabulary, grammar, similes and styles.
Literature in India was influenced by the Turko-Afghans to a large
extent. Books like Hassan Nizami’s Taj-ul-Moa’ Sir, Qazi
Minhaz-us-Siraj’s Tabakat-i-Nasiri etc. influenced the Hindus. Many
good works were composed and written in Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati and
Marathi etc. Many Arabized Persian language words found their way
into the local languages. Long association brought the two distinct
groups of the Hindus and Muslims closer and closer with the result
that the evolution of the Hindu culture was coloured with the Islamic
thing. But the Hindu culture in its own turn influenced the Islamic
elements. It is a fact that the Hindus and the Muslims have
contributed to the evolution of common cultural heritage in India.
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