Jainism

Jainism

1. 
   A Brief Historical Survey (socio-political-religio situation in India during the 7^th and 6^th centuries BCE; Life and works of Vardhamana Mahavira; history of Jainism after Mahavira; the divisions: Diambara and Svetambara; Rise of Sthanakvasis in the 15^th century; Jainism in north and south India)

A brief historical survey

In the early part of the 6^th century BC, the centre of political activity and focus of civilization shifted eastwards in the modern region of Oudh and Bihar to the south of Ganges. A large number of territorial kingdoms and republics had sprung up. This period also witnessed the rise of as many as 63 religious sects and movements. Many of these sects were based on religious customs and rituals current among the people of north east India.

Religion – Vedic to later Vedic period…

The origins of Jainism are obscure. Its philosophical roots go back to old currents of religious and metaphysical speculation in ancient India. During the 5th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism. Mahāvīra, however, was most probably neither the founder of Jainism, which reveres him as their prophet, nor the author of their religion. He appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion established long ago.

Parsva, the traditional predecessor of Mahavira is the first Jain figure for whom there is reasonable historical evidence. He might have lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BCE. Followers of Pārśva are mentioned in the canonical books; and a legend in the Uttarādhyayana sūtra relates a meeting between a disciple of Pārśva and a disciple of Mahāvīra which brought about the union of the old branch of the Jain church and the new one.

Jains traditionally trace their history through twenty-four propagators of faith known as tirthankara (fordmakers). The lineage of these tirthankara begins with Rishabha and ends with Mahavira. Amongh these, the last two tirthankara are historical personalities the first twenty-two tirthankara are more of legendary mythical figures. Glasenapp, writes that first century after the year 1000 BCE would be the higher limit to the origin of Jainism.

Life and works of Vardhaman Mahavira

Lord Mahavir was the twenty-fourth and the last Tirthankara of the Jain religion. According to Jain philosophy, all Tirthankaras were born as human beings but they have attained a state of perfection or enlightenment through meditation and self realization. They are the Gods of Jains. Tirthankaras are also known as Arihants or Jinas.

• Tirthankara - One who establishes the four fold order (Monk, Nun, Layman, and Laywoman) of religion.
• Arihant - One who destroys his inner enemies like anger, greed, passion, ego, etc.
• Jina - One who conquers his inner enemies like anger, greed, passion, ego, etc. The followers of Jina are known as Jains.

Mahavir was born in 599 B.C. as a prince in Bihar, India. At the age of 30, he left his family and royal household, gave up his worldly possessions, including clothing and become a monk.

He spent the next twelve years in deep silence and meditation to conquer his desires and feelings. He went without food for long periods. He carefully avoided harming or annoying other living beings including animals, birds, and plants. His ways of meditation, days of austerities, and mode of behavior furnish a beautiful example for monks and nuns in religious life. His spiritual pursuit lasted for twelve years. At the end he realized perfect perception, knowledge, power, and bliss. This realization is known as keval-jnana.

He spent the next thirty years travelling on bare feet around India preaching to the people the eternal truth he realized. He attracted people from all walks of life, rich and poor, kings and commoners, men and women, princes and priests, touchables and untouchables.

He organized his followers, into a four fold order, namely monk (Sadhu), nun (Sadhvi), layman (Shravak), and laywoman (Shravika). Later on they are known as Jains.

The ultimate objective of his teaching is how one can attain the total freedom from the cycle of birth, life, pain, misery, and death, and achieve the permanent blissful state of one’s self. This is also known as liberation, nirvana, absolute freedom, or Moksha.

He explained that from eternity, every living being (soul) is in bondage of karmic atoms, that are accumulated by its own good or bad deeds. Under the influence of karma, the soul is habituated to seek pleasures in materialistic belongings and possessions. Which are the deep rooted causes of self-centered violent thoughts, deeds, anger, hatred, greed, and such other vices. These result in accumulating more karma.

History of Jainism after Mahavira

After the death of Mahavira, the doctrines of Jainism were spread in India by the followers of this religion, known as Srutekevalins. The most famous of them was Bhadrabahu who was a contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. It is said that Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism and in his latter life he abdicated his throne to move to the south. As such, Tamil country was brought in touch with Jaina doctrines. Those in Magadha continued their existence under the leadership of Sathubhadra in Magadha. He called a meeting of the Jains with a view to systematically arranging the sacred scriptures.

Digambaras and Svetambaras

The Jain community is divided into two major denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Digambara monks do not wear clothes because they believe these, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things—and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. This practice restricts full monastic life (and therefore mokṣa) to males, as Digambaras do not permit women to be nude; female renunciates wear white and are referred to as Aryikas. Śvētāmbara monastics, on the other hand, wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing in the scriptures that condemns the wearing of clothes. Women are accorded full status as renunciates and are often called sadhvi, the feminine of sadhu, a term often used for male monastics. Śvētāmbara believe women may attain liberation and that the tirthankara Māllīnātha was female.

Even though the Śvētāmbara allowed women the status of renunciate the nuns were still under the control of the monks. In general women in Indic society were governed by a triad of guardian males: father, husband, and son. The honor of the family and even the entire community seemed to rest on their women and whether or not they conformed to societal expectations placed on them. Jain nuns also had a triad to govern them: the male teacher (āyariya), the male preceptor (uvajjhāya) or head of the monastic group (gani), and the female supervisor (pavatinnî ganinî). The trio of guardians for the nuns were needed since women were thought to be most vulnerable to attack or seduction and could easily be swayed to corruptibility. The integrity of the monastic community rested on the nuns behaving accordingly and the responsibility for this belonged to the monks.

The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c. 2nd century CE). Digambaras believe that Mahāvīra remained unmarried, whereas Śvētāmbara believe Mahāvīra married a woman who bore him a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, Mahāvīra’s mother.

Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c. 1st century CE). Tirthankara, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as the Ardhaphalaka (“half-clothed”) mentioned in texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.

Śvētāmbara sub-sects include Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi, and Murtipujaka. The Sthanakvasi and Terapanthi are aniconic. Śvētāmbara follow the twelve Jain Agamas. Digambara sub-sects include Bisapanthi, Kanjipanthi, Taranapanthi and Terapanthi. In 1974 a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Saman Suttam.

Rise of Sthanakvasis in the 15^th century

The Sthanakvasi are also called by terms as (a) Dhundhiya (searchers) and (b)Sadhumargi (followers of Sadhus, i.e., ascetics). Except on the crucial point of idol-worship, Sthanakvasi do not differ much from other Svetambara Jainas and hence now-a-days they invariably call themselves as Svetambara Sthanakvasi. However, there are some differences between the Sthanakvasi; and the Murtipujaka Svetambaras in the observance of some religious practices. The Sthanakvasi do not believe in idol-worship at all. As such they do not have temples but only sthanakas, that is, prayer halls, where they carry on their religious fasts, festivals, practices, prayers, discourses, etc. Further, the ascetics of Sthanakvasi cover their mouths with strips of cloth for all the time and they do not use the cloth of yellow or any other color (of course, except white). Moreover, the Sthanakvasi admit the authenticity of only 31 of the scriptures of Svetambaras. Furthermore, the Sthanakvasi do not have faith in the places of pilgrimage and do not participate in the religious festivals of Murtipujaka Svetambaras.

The Svetambara Sthanakvasi are also spread in different business centers in India but they are found mainly in Gujarat, Punjab, Harayana and Rajasthan.

Jainism in north and south India

Janinism in South India: It is now an undisputed fact that Jainism entered into Karnataka and south India during the days of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya when Bhadrabahu, the distinguished leader of Jainas and the last of the Jaina saints known as sruta-kevalis, after predicting twelve years famine in the north India, led the migration of the Jaina Sangha to the South. Thus it is stated that the Jaina history in the South commences from the 3rd Century B.C. as according to all Jaina authors the death of Acharya Bhadrabahu took place in 297 B.C. at Shravanabelagola.

In any case Jainism prevailed in south India in 3rd Century B.C. and it continued as a popular faith for more than one thousand years of the Christian Era and it is significant to note that up to the 14th century A.D. Jainism played an important role in the history of south India.

Jainism in North India: When by 300 B.C. the migration of Jainas began from eastern India to different parts of the country. One of their branches was firmly established in north India from the middle of the second century B.C. and was settled in the Mathura region. That Shravanabelagola was to the Jainas of South. Mathura, in the old kingdom of Surasenas, was to the Jainas of North. The numerous inscriptions excavated in this city tell us about a wide-spread and firmly established Jaina religion. Strongly supported By pious lay devotees and very jealous in the consecration and worship of images and shrines dedicated to Lord Mahavira and his predecessors. As these inscriptions range from the 2nd century B.C. to the 5th century A.D.. it is clear that Mathura was a stronghold of Jainas for nearly a thousand years.

Another center of Jaina activities in the North was Ujjayini It was the capital of Maurya Emperor Samprati who was the Jaina Ashok. Since we find several references to Ujjayini in the Jaina literature, it seems that the city might have played an important role in the history of Jaina religion.

2. The Jaina Scriptures (Digambara and Svetambara)

The texts containing the teachings of Mahavira are called the Agamas, and are the canonical literature - the scriptures - of Svetambara Jainism. Mahavira’s disciples compiled his words into texts or sutras, and memorised them to pass on to future generations. The texts had to be memorised since Jain monks and nuns were not allowed to possess religious books as part of their vow of non-acquisition, nor were they allowed to write. Jain theology developed after Mahavira through the teachings of particularly learned monks - these teachings too, had to be memorised - and so the amount that the monks had to remember steadily increased.

Loss of the scriptures: Unfortunately many of the original teachings of Mahavira have been lost. As centuries passed some of the texts were forgotten, and others were misremembered. The distortion of the original texts caused much concern to the Jains. Then came a particular disruption around 350 BCE when a famine killed off many Jain monks, and with them the memory of many Jain texts.

The Digambara sect believes that during this famine all the Agamas were lost; the Svetamabara sect believes that the majority of these texts survived. This is one of the most important differences between the two groups in Jainism, and it means that Jain texts have very different roles for the two groups of Jains. Both sects agree that a group of texts called the Purvas were lost in the famine.

Preservation of the scriptures: After the famine, monks and nuns of the Svetambara sect held several conferences to preserve the most important Jain texts. Unsurprisingly there were many arguments about which texts were authentic, and different sub-sects still differ over this. Jain monks and nuns are now permitted to possess religious books, so the Jain scriptures should no longer be in danger.

3. Main teachings (the 24 Tirthankaras; Tattvas: Jiva and Ajiva (Pudgal, Dharma, Adharma, Akasa, Kala), Asrava, Bandha, Punya, Papa, Samvara, Nirjara, Moksa; Ethical Code (Ahimas, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacarya); Anekantavada and Syadavada; the Tri-ratnas; Discipline for monks

The 24 Tirthankaras

In Jainism, a Tīrthaṅkara is a person who has conquered samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth, and can provide a bridge for Jains to follow them from samsara to moksha (liberation). According to scripture, that which helps one to cross samsara is a tīrtha (“ford”) and a person who fills that role is a tīrthaṅkara (“ford-maker”).

Twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras grace each half of the cosmic time cycle. The 24th tīrthaṅkara of the current cycle was Mahavira.

1. Rishabha
2. Ajitanatha
3. Sambhavanatha
4. Abhinandananatha
5. Sumatinatha
6. Padmaprabha
7. Suparshvanatha
8. Chandraprabha
9. Pushpadanta
10. Shitalanatha
11. Shreyanasanatha
12. Vasupujya
13. Vimalanatha
14. Anantanatha
15. Dharmanatha
16. Shantinatha
17. Kunthunatha
18. Aranatha
19. Mallinatha
20. Munisuvrata
21. Naminatha
22. Neminatha
23. Parshvanatha
24. Mahavira

Tattvas: Jiva and Ajiva (Pudgal, Dharma, Adharma, Akasa, Kala), Asrava, Bandha, Punya, Papa, Samvara, Nirjara, Moksa

The nine tattvas, or principles, are the single most important subject of Jain philosophy. It deals with the karma theory of Jainism, which provides the basis for the path of liberation. Without the proper knowledge of this subject, a person cannot progress spiritually. The proper understanding of this subject brings about right faith (samyak-darshana), right knowledge (samyak-jnana), and right conduct in an individual.

Nine Tattvas (Principles):

1. Jiva - soul or living being (Consciousness)
2. Ajiva - non-living substances
3. Asrava - cause of the influx of karma
4. Bandha - bondage of karma
5. Punya* - virtue
6. Papa* - sin
7. Samvara - arrest of the influx of karma
8. Nirjara - exhaustion of the accumulated karma
9. Moksha - total liberation from karma

* Punya and Papa are the diverse results of Asrava and Bandh. Some exponents of Jains do not treat them as separate tattvas. According to them, there are only seven principles instead of nine.

1. Jiva (Soul/ Atman): Soul according to Jainism is eternal. It undergoes suffering in the body because of Karma. Soul Trans migrate from the body through self-modification ands self-restrain. The freeing or salvation of soul from body is called Moksha. Soul takes any of the four forms namely Devata (God), Nara (Human), Naraki (beings of hell), and Tiryanka (lower animals/plants). Jains believe in the transmigration of soul.

2. Ajiva (Matter): It is an eternal object formed of five substances namely Pudgala, Pharma, Adharma, Akasla and Kala. The union of Jiva and Ajiva is bondage. The freedom of Jiva from Ajiva has two classes namely Rupa and Arupa (formless). Ajiva has the qualities of touch, taste, smell and color. It is the smallest part of an atom. Matter in gross from has water, earth, fire and air. It can be perceived by the senses and its subtle from is Karma.

3. Punya (merit): it is the consequence of good deeds. It is attained through the practice of charity, feeding of the hungry, giving water to the thirsty, giving cloth to the naked and rendering personal service to living beings. The enjoyment of Punya (merit) comes in the form of rewards in different existences.

4. Papa (sin): Papa is evil that produce sin. It is a major factor in the bondage of soul. Some of the sins are caused by the violation of five precepts (Ahimsa). The injury of any form results in terrible punishments. Other forms of sin are anger, pride, cheating, greed, attachment and hatred. Sin produces consequences in different forms.

5. Asrava: It is a process of accumulation of karmic matter (deeds) by the soul. The accumulation of karma caused the bondage of soul. The karmic matter flows into the soul through sense organs. There are two kinds of Asravas namely. The inflow of Good asrava (subha) results liberation where as bad asrava or a subha leads to further bondage.

6. Samvara (Controlling/ Stopping): The ceasing of inflow of karmic matter into the soul is called samvara or asravanirodha. It is attained through good deeds and voluntary suffering. The sense control and the self restrain leads to samvara. Righteous observances, good conduct and meditation makes the process fast.

7. Bandha (Bodage): Union of soul with matter is called bandha. There are five causes of bondage. They are: ♣ Wrong belief ♣ Non-renunciation ♣ Carelessness ♣ Passion ♣ Viyoga. Bondage leads to rebirth.

8. Nirjara (Shedding off): It is the destruction or drying up of karma, samvara, arrests the karmic stormic inflow. Whereas mejara destroys the accumulated karma, austerity or fasting, meditation and self discipline prevent the future karma and help to destroy the past karma.

9. Moksha: It is the liberation or the stage of utter absence of karma. It is a means in which the soul is freed from the matter (body) Jains believed that the librated soul go upward to the end of the universal. The liberated person is called Siddha. The Digambaras believed that no woman can become a Siddha. Siddha is the supreme stage of spiritual attainment.

Ethical Code (Ahimas, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha, Brahmacarya)

1. Ahiṃsā: Non-violence, non-harming other living beings
2. Satya: truthfulness, non-falsehood
3. Asteya: non-stealing
4. Brahmacharya: celibacy, non-cheating on one’s partner
5. Aparigraha: non-avarice, non-possessiveness.

Anekantavada and Syadava

The principles of Jain Philosophy are based on the theory of Syadvad. It is the best means of arriving at the truth or of ascertaining fundamental principles and it is because of this that the Jain Philosophy is at the helm of all philosophies and the Jain Religion is the perfect religion. The word Syadvad is composed of two words ‘Syat’ and ‘Vada’. Syat means in a sense or from a certain standpoint (Apeksha) and Vada points at Principle or School. One thing from one standpoint or point of view appears to be of a certain type while from another point of view the same thing appears to be of a different type. Therefore, to comprehend the full aspect of a thing one must take into account several points of view. This being the belief of Syadvad, it is sometimes also known as “Anekantavada” as well (i.e. that school of thought which takes into account more than one point of view). To understand the true nature of Syadvada, Apekshavada or Anekantavada one must properly follow the parable of the story of Blind Men and the Elephant.

In other words: there is no absolute truth

The tri-ratnas

The Three Jewels, also called the Three Treasures, Three Refuges, Precious Triad, or most commonly the Triple Gem Pali: Tiratana, Sanskrit: triratna, are the three things that Buddhists take refuge in, and look toward for guidance, in the process known as taking refuge.

The Three Jewels are:

Buddha: The Enlightened or Awakened One. Depending on one’s interpretation, it can mean the historical Buddha (Siddharta) or the Buddha nature — the ideal or highest spiritual potential that exists within all beings;

Dharma: The Teaching. The teachings of the Buddha, the path to Enlightenment.

Sangha: The Community. The community of those who have attained enlightenment, who may help a practicing Buddhist to do the same. Also used more broadly to refer to the community of practicing Buddhists, or the community of Buddhist monks and nuns.

Discipline for monks

The rules of conduct of Jain ascetics are based on modifications and adaptations from older text, since they are not able to provide exact guidance. The earliest available texts often ask for ascetics to be in complete solitude, identifying the isolation of soul and non-soul. This, however, did not prove to be practical. Soon after the death of Mahavira, the ascetics organized themselves into groups. Few examples of ascetics living in complete solitude are found in the digambara sect of Jainism.

Jain ascetics are detached from social and worldly activities. Instead, they spend their time spiritually uplifting their souls and guiding householders on how to uplift their souls, with all their activities aimed at self-purification for self-realization. For the attainment of this objective, they following established guidelines, perform the daily worship, and undertake austerities.

Ascetics do not have a home or any possessions. Their quality of life is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them; they also avoid using basic services like telephones and electricity.

They do not take food or water after sunset or before sunrise. They wait forty-eight minutes after sunrise before drinking boiled water. They bestow their blessings on all irrespective of their caste, creed, sex, age, wealth, or social status, uttering the words Dharm Labh (“May you attain spiritual prosperity”). Some put Vakshep (scented sandal dust) on the heads of people. Monks and nuns show the path of wholesome life and of a righteous and disciplined life to everyone through discussions, discourses, seminars and camps to attain spiritual prosperity.

Gochari: Jain ascetics do not cook their food, do not get it prepared for them, and do not accept any food which was prepared for them. They collect it from various houses.

Vihar: When they travel from one place to another, whatever the distance, they always walk barefoot.

Loch: The Jain ascetics after receiving the Diksha (initiation) do not cut their hair or shave their heads; nor do they get these things done by a barber. But twice a year or at least once a year at the time of Paryushan, they pluck off their hairs or they get the hairs plucked by others.

4. Important Practices (Worship and temple rituals, holy days and festivals, pilgrimages to holy places, samskaras, fasting and sallekhana)

Worship

The Ṇamōkāra mantra is the fundamental prayer of Jainism. In this prayer there is no mention of names, including that of the tirthankara. Jains do not ask for favours or material benefits from the tirthankara or from monks. This mantra simply serves as a gesture of deep respect towards beings they believe are more spiritually advanced and to remind followers of Jainism of their ultimate goal, moksha.

In Jainism, the purpose of worship or prayer is to break the barriers of worldly attachments and desires, so as to assist in the liberation of the soul. Jains follow six obligatory duties known as avashyakas: samyika (practising serenity), chaturvimshati (praising the tirthankara), vandan (respecting teachers and monks), pratikramana (introspection), kayotsarga (stillness), and pratyakhyana (renunciation). Related to the five auspicious life events of tirthankara called the Panch Kalyanaka are such rituals as the panch kalyanaka pratishtha, panch kalyanaka puja, and snatra puja.

Festivals

Paryushana is one of the most important festivals for Jains. Śvētāmbara Jains normally refer to it as Paryushana, with the literal meaning of “abiding” or “coming together”, while Digambara Jains call it Das Lakshana. It is a time when the laity take on vows of study and fasting with a spiritual intensity similar to temporary monasticism. Paryushana lasts eight days for Śvētāmbara Jains and ten days for Digambara Jains.

Mahāvīra Jayanti, the birthday of Mahāvīra, the last tirthankara, is celebrated on the thirteenth day of the fortnight of the waxing moon in the month of Chaitra, which date falls in late March or early April of the Gregorian calendar. Diwali is a festival that takes place during the month of Kartik in the Indian lunisolar calendar, around the new-moon day (amavasya). This usually falls in October or November. Mahāvīra attained his nirvana at the dawn of the amavasya (new moon). According to the Kalpa Sūtra by Acharya Bhadrabahu, 3rd century BCE, numerous deva were present there, illuminating the darkness. On 21 October 1974 the 2500th Nirvana Mahotsava was celebrated by Jains throughout India.

Fasting

Most Jains fast at special times, particularly during festivals. A Jain, however, may fast whenever it seems appropriate. A unique ritual in this religion involves a holy fast to death, called sallekhana. Through this one achieves a death with dignity and dispassion as well as a great reduction of negative karma. When a person is aware of approaching death, and feels that all his or her duties have been fulfilled, he or she may decide to gradually cease eating and drinking. This form of dying is also called santhara. It can take as long as twelve years of gradual reduction in food intake. Considered extremely spiritual and creditable, with awareness of the transitory nature of human experience, santhara has recently been the centre of a controversy in which a lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare it illegal. Jains see santhara as spiritual detachment requiring a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity, a declaration that a person has finished with this world and chooses to leave.

Samskaras

The Samskarasare rites of passage finding varied acceptance among religious adherents of Hinduism (Vedic), Jainism and some schools of thought in Buddhism.

Sanskār is also a commonly used Hindi pronunciation of the word and signifies “cultural heritage and upbringing” in modern speech. Samskaram is the proper and commonly used word that would be universally understood and refers to someone having proper upbringing and behaviour.

5. Appraisal: The significance of Jaina ethics in contemporary society; The relevance of Anekantavada and Syadavada in the context of religious plurality and the related problems of religious fundamentalism and communalism.