ETHICAL PERIOD- Western Philosophy

ETHICAL PERIOD [ABOUT 350-200 BCE]

1.1.1            Epicureanism and stoicism

The following on Epicureanism and Stoicism is a brief complement to the longer discussion on Stoicism, which is taken up again below:

The Epicureans and Stoics. These thinkers were concerned primarily with ethics – however the ethics needed a metaphysics and cosmology and a theory of knowledge and truth in terms of sense experience – they were pioneers of the empirical tradition in epistemology. They were nominalists – a universal is not a reality but a mark or sign: the only realities are particulars. They were also forerunners of medieval nominalism. Opinions and hypotheses must be confirmed by sense experience or at least suggested by perception and not contradicted by them

Epicurean metaphysics is, in its essentials, a restatement of the atomistic and materialistic mechanism of Democritus. Psychology – also derives from the emanationism of Democritus – likewise soul – the nimble fiery soul atom – is material; soul has a rational part, is mortal – there is no afterlife to be feared

Epicurean ethics is hedonism – based on pleasure – but not a basis for debauchery: some pleasures are followed by pains and many pains are followed by pleasures; therefore not all pleasures are to be chosen and not all pains avoided. Mental pleasures are greater than pleasures of the body, mental pains worse than physical pains – therefore a life of prudence and wisdom is good and this has a naturalistic basis in the caprice of the world. In truth, Epicureanism is an ethics of enlightened self-interest: Epicurus extolled the same virtues as did Plato, Aristotle and the stoics – wisdom, courage, temperance and justice – but for different reasons. [However, although the pleasure-theory of Epicurus is not a doctrine of sensuality, it came to be so interpreted by many.]

Epicurean 341 – 270 BCE social and political philosophy: the enlightened self-interest of the individual is the highest good; from here follows justice and right, laws and institutions, practical rules of action – but only as means

1.1.2            Skepticism and eclecticism

Skepticism was contemporary with Stoicism and Epicureanism. After Socrates and the great system of Plato and Aristotle, time was right for a new period of movement of doubt. The Skeptics filled this function: the thought common to this school is that we cannot know the nature of things: Pyrrho [365-270 BCE] may be called the founder but wrote nothing: his views were set down by Timon of Phlius [320-230 BCE]. After Timon, the Skeptical school was absorbed by the Platonic Academy and did not emerge as an independent school until the Academy – called the Middle Academy during the Skeptical period – purged itself of Skepticism under Philo of Larina and Anticus: Skepticism again became an independent movement at the beginning of the Christian era and was later represented by Sextus Empircus. Eclecticism was encouraged by the growing intercourse between Greek scholars and the Romans. The Romans had no genius for philosophy; it was only after Rome conquered Macedonian 168 BCE and Greece became a Roman Province [146 BCE] that interest arose in philosophical speculation. The Romans produced no independent system: they selected and modified according to their practical needs: “They sought and found in Philosophy, nothing but a rule of conduct and a means of government.” Subsequently, Eclecticism made its way into nearly all the schools, into the Academy [Plate], the Lyceum [Aristotle] and the Stoa; the Epicureans alone remained true to their creed

1.1.3            Stoicism – continued

Zeno [336-264 BCE] b Citium, Cyprus, came to Athens in 314, and in 294 opened his school in the Stoa Poikile [painted corridor or porch, from which “Stoicism”] and was founder of the school. Zeno was esteemed for his upright character, the simplicity of his life, his affability and moral earnestness…He was followed by his pupil Cleanthes [264-232 BCE] who lacked the qualities needed to defend the school against the Skeptics and the Epicureans…Next came Chrysippus of Soli, Cilicia [232-204 BCE], a man of great ability who clearly defined the teachings of the school, gave unity to the system, and defended it against the Skeptics. His pupils included Zeno of Tarsis, Diogenes of Babylon, Antipater of Tarsus…Stoicism as developed by Chrysippus found favor in Rome during the Republic: Panaetius [180-110 BCE] being one of the first Roman adherents of note. During the Empire it divided into two schools: one popular, represented by Musonius Rufus [first century CE], Seneca [3-65 CE], Epictitus [first century CE] and Emperor Marcus Aurelius [121-180]: the other scientific, whose sole aim was to preserve intact and interpret the old doctrine

1.1.3.1        Logic and the theory of knowledge

The goal of Stoic philosophy is to find a rational basis for ethics: they start with logic, the science of thoughts and discourses. Stoic logic included grammar, and thus Stoics are founders of the traditional science of grammar…the dialectical part of logic deals with the theory of knowledge: of which there are two problems: [1] what is the origin [source] of knowledge, and [2]what is the criterion of knowledge

Sources: Knowledge is gained through perception. The mind has the faculty of forming general ideas and concepts of a large number of cases which are alike and of forming universal judgments. This faculty, reason, is a faculty of thought and speech identical with the universal reason which pervades the world…the Stoics posited objected rationality in the world and yet opposed the Platonic doctrine of ideas: only particular objects have real existence and universals are subjective abstractions

Criterion: A sense image is true when it is an exact copy of the object. A concept is true when it agrees with the qualities pervading similar things. How shall we distinguish true from false? Man is entitled to his conviction when he has satisfied himself that his sense organ is in normal condition, that the percept is clear and distinct and that repeated observations by him and others verify his first impression. Since true premises are deduced logically from true premises, the faculty of drawing correct inferences is accordingly another means of reaching the truth – and dialectic an essential qualification of the Stoic sage. Consequently, the stoics gave considerable attention to formal logic, particularly the syllogism, which they regarded as its most important phase [they made minor additions to Aristotle’s scheme of syllogism and revised his table of categories]

1.1.3.2        Metaphysics

Stoic metaphysics – a materialistic version of Aristotelian metaphysics: force [or form] and matter are both corporeal…but force consists of a finer kind of stuff, while matter as such is coarse, formless and immovable…Only forces have causality – the effect which results, however, is not a cause or a force – nor is it a body – but a mere accidental state of the body…The forces in the universe form one all-pervasive force or fire: the rational active soul of the world. The universe is a cosmos – a beautiful, well-ordered, perfect whole. The rational principle is related to the world as the human soul is to its body [the pervasion of the cosmos by a rational principle is pure pantheism]…but just as the governing part of the soul is situated in a particular part of the body, so the ruling part of the world soul, the Deity, or Zeus, is seated at the outermost circle of the world: pantheism and theism dwell together in the Stoic system [as in many modern systems], however in Stoicism the pantheistic aspect clearly prevails

1.1.3.3        Cosmology

The Stoics offer a detailed description of the evolution of the world from the original divine fire: every recurring world will resemble its predecessors in every detail – the theory of cyclic recurrence – for each world is produced by the same law…Man is free in the sense that he can assent to what fate decrees, but, whether he assents or not, he must obey…Now, if everything is a manifestation of God, how shall we explain evil in the world? [1] The negative solution denies the existence of evil – what we call evils are only relative evils; [2]the positive solution regards evil, such as disease, as the necessary and inevitable consequence of natural processes or as a necessary means of realizing the good

1.1.3.4        Psychology

A man is free when he acts in accordance with reason; that is, obedience to the eternal laws of nature. The Stoic conception of freedom is one of rational self-determination…

The Stoic doctrine of cyclic recurrence implies that all souls necessarily reappear with the recreation of the universe

1.1.3.5        Ethics

Man is part of the universal order, a spark of the divine fire, a small universe [microcosm] reflecting the greater universe [macrocosm]. Hence it behooves man to act in harmony with the purpose of the universe…to reach the highest possible3 measure of perfection. To do this he must put his own soul in order: reason should rule him as reason rules the world…to live according to nature for a human being is to act in conformity with reason, the logos…to live thus is to realize one’s self and to realize one’s true self is to serve the purposes of universal reason and to work for universal ends. The Stoic ethical ideal implies a universal society of rational beings with the same rights – for reason is the same in all and all are part of the same world soul

A truly virtuous act is one which is consciously directed toward the highest purpose or end, and is performed with conscious knowledge of moral principle. Thus, virtuous conduct implies complete and certain knowledge of the good and a conscious purpose, on the part of the doer, to realize the supreme good. To act unconsciously and without knowledge is not virtue. Virtue is one, a unity, for everything depends on disposition, on the good will: a man either has it or he has it not: there is no middle ground: he is either a wise man or a fool…Virtue is the only good, vice the only evil – all else is indifferent

Evil conduct is the result of wrong judgment, or false opinion: the Stoics sometimes regard evil as the cause, sometimes the effect of the passions or immoderate impulses. The four such passions are pleasure, desire, grief and fear. These passions and their many variations are diseases of the soul which it is our business, not merely to moderate, but to eradicate, since they are irrational…Apathy or freedom from passion is, accordingly, the Stoic ideal

1.1.3.6        Religion

True religion and philosophy are one, according to the Stoics. [Little wonder that Stoic philosophy should appeal to the Jesuits.]