John Locke [1632-1704]
John Locke was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of the Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism". His Philosophy in brief is as follows:
1.1
Locke’s
problem
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1.2
Origin
of knowledge
Philosophy,
according to Locke, is true knowledge of things, including the nature of things
[physics], that which man ought to do as a rational voluntary agent [practica,
or ethics], and the ways and means of obtaining and communicating such
knowledge [semiotics, logic]. The most important of these three is the problem
of knowledge…But we must first study the origin of our ideas…for if it is true
[as Descartes and others held] that we have innate knowledge of principles,
there would seem to be no reason to question its validity. The problem of
innate ideas is therefore taken up in the first book [written last] of Locke’s
main work: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. …In short, ideas and
principles are just as little innate as the arts and sciences, concludes Locke
by examining different classes of humanity [children, savages, tribes] and
relativism and moral decay. Then: whence does the mind derive all the materials
of reason and knowledge? Locke’s Answer: Experience: the two sources: sensation
and reflection [internal sense – Locke], such as perception, thinking,
doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing: these are the primary
capacity of the human mind…By idea Locke means whatsoever the mind directly
apprehends: the immediate object of perception, thought, or understanding…These
are simple ideas which mind has the power to repeat, compare, combine in
endless variety resulting in complex ideas. Some ideas are received by one
sense only, some by reflection only and some by combinations of senses and
reflection
The
power which objects have to produce definite ideas in us we call qualities;
original or primary qualities belong to the object, secondary qualities are
[nothing in the object themselves but] powers to produce various sensations by
primary qualities. Examples: primary: solidity, extension, motion,
rest…secondary: colors, sounds, tastes…
Complex
ideas – three types: modes, substances, relations: [1] ideas of modes are
complex ideas which…are [although Locke does not seem to use the word] forms:
dependencies on or affections of substances: e.g., triangle, gratitude… [2]
ideas of substances are complex ideas: combinations of ideas of qualities,
supposed to represent a distinct particular thing and the confused idea of a
support or bearer of these qualities [modes lack this aspect: the idea of a
bearer]…[3] ideas of relation are obtained by comparing things; the most
comprehensive idea of relation is cause and effect: that which produces
a[simple or complex] idea is cause, that which is produced: effect
1.3
Nature
and validity of knowledge
Ideas
should be clear and distinct, real [having foundation in nature and being in
conformity with the real existent things]…Simple ideas are all real not because
they are representations of what exists – only primary qualities of bodies are
that, but because they are effect of powers outside of our minds…[simple modes
are variations of the same simple idea and therefore real: mixed modes are
compounded of simple ideas of several kinds; e.g., beauty – a combination of
color, figure, causing delight in the beholder]. Mixed modes are real only in
that they are so framed that there is a possibility of something existing
conformable to them. They are archetypes and so cannot be chimerical unless
inconsistent ideas are jumbled together in them…complex ideas of substances are
real only insofar as they are such combinations of simple ideas as are not
really united in things outside us…Ideas are adequate which perfectly represent
the archetypes from which the mind supposes them to have been taken while
inadequate ideas are a partial or incomplete representation of these archetypes.
Whenever mind refers any of its ideas to things extraneous to them, the ideas
are then capable of being called true or false; i.e., it is the tacit
supposition of their conformity to these things which may be true or false
There
are different degrees of evidence in knowledge…intuition or intuitive
knowledge is perception of agreement or disagreement of these ideas by direct
inspection, without the intervention of any other ideas; demonstrative
knowledge results from the comparison of two ideas by comparing them with one
or more other ideas – i.e., indirectly. Both intuitive and demonstrative
knowledge provide certainty; whatever falls short of one of these is faith or
opinion but is not knowledge in the strict sense…But: is there anything more
than the ideas…is there a real world? Sometimes, as in dreams, we have ideas to
which nothing corresponds at the time. Yet, ordinary perception [when we hare
aware and presumably subject to neither hallucination nor illusion] affords a
kind of evidence which is beyond any reasonable doubt; Locke calls it sensitive
knowledge
1.4
Limits
of knowledge
Since
knowledge is a perception of agreement or disagreement of our ideas, it follows
that our knowledge cannot reach further than our ideas…the only knowledge that
really satisfies one is knowledge of universal self-evident truths; but there
are large areas of experience in which such knowledge seems
unobtainable…Absolute certainty of a general sort is never to be found except
in the agreement and disagreement of our ideas. We have no self-evident
propositions as to real existence – except in the case of God and
ourselves…Faith is a settled and certain principle of assent and assurance, and
leaves no room for doubt or hesitation. But we must be sure that it is a divine
revelation. Consequently our assent can be rationally no higher than the
evidence of its being a relation
1.5
Ethics
In
harmony with his philosophical empiricism, Locke offers an empirical theory of
ethics which ends by being an egoistic hedonism. Men attain knowledge of moral
rules and are convinced of their obligation to conform to them through
experience [the source of all knowledge, according to Locke]…Moral laws
originally came to be established through pleasure and pain: the great teachers
of morality…it would be useless for one intelligent being to prescribe rules
for actions of another if he did not have the power to reward obedience and to
punish disobedience…There are three sorts of law: divine law, civil law and the
law of opinion or private censure: by which the great majority of men govern
themselves chiefly
1.6
Free
will
Is an
idea pertaining not to volition but to the person having the power of doing or
forbearing to do as the mind shall choose or direct. The free will problem is,
in Locke’s opinion, meaningless; for the concept of freedom has significant
power of application to man’s power of action but not his will
1.7
Political
philosophy
Locke’s
theory of the State is presented in his two Treatises on Government…He
opposes the view that the best government is absolute monarchy, that kings have
a divine right to absolute power, that mankind has no right to natural freedom
and equality. Men are naturally in a state of perfect freedom…also, in a state
of equality of nature, no man having more power and jurisdiction than another.
The law of nature teaches all mankind that, all being equal and independent no
one ought to harm another in his life, liberty and possessions. The basis of Locke’s
philosophy is egoistic [i.e., self-preservation is the motive fore preservation
of the state]…The state of nature is not, as Hobbes had supposed, a state of
war, but a state of peace, good will, and mutual assistance…When men, by
consent, have formed a community they have made that community one body with
power to act as such according to the will and determination of the majority.
After such a society has been formed, every man puts himself under an
obligation to everyone of that society to submit to the rule of the
majority…but, by considering the formative principle of society, the power of
society can never be supposed to extend further than is required by the common
good
The
first and fundamental natural law which is to govern even the legislative authority
itself, is the preservation of society and – so far as it consonant with the
public good – of every person in it. The first and fundamental positive law of
all commonwealth is the establishing of the legislative power
It is
not desirable that those who have the powers of making laws should also have
the power to execute them…The federative power and executive pow4r are best
placed in one hand. [The federative powers are the power of war, peace, to
enter leagues and alliances, to engage in all transactions with all persons and
communities outside the commonwealth; to the executive is delegated the supreme
execution of the laws. The legislative power may, when it finds cause, take
both the executive and federative powers out of the hands in which it has
placed them, and punish any maladministration.]
The
people have supreme power to remove and alter the legislative when they find it
acting contrary to the trust reposed in it. But while the government exists,
the legislative is the supreme power. The power of choosing it rests with the
people
1.8
Theory
of education
Like
all great philosophers of the modern era, Locke finds fault with the method of
instruction which had come down as a heritage from Scholasticism, and presents
a new program of education based on his empirical psychology of ethics…The
individuality of the child is to be developed in a natural manner; hence
private instruction is preferable…social education should not be lost sight of:
the youth is to be trained to become a useful member of society
1.9
Economic
theory
In
opposition to [Lord] Shaftesbury [Characteristics 1711: man possesses
self-affections and social affections; virtue consists in the proper balance
between the two, and the moral sense tells us whether they are in harmony or
not], Bernard Mandeville [The Grumbling Hive: or Knaves Turned Honest
1705, The Fable of the Bees: or Private Vices Public Benefits 1714]
tries to show that selfishness [private vices] contributes more to the public
good than does benevolence. The Frenchman Helvetius [De L’esprit 1758m De
L’homme 1772] follows Hobbes and Mandeville in making egoism the sole
motive of human action, and enlightened self-interest the criterion of morals.
The only way to make a man moral is to make him see his welfare in the public
welfare, and this can be done by legislation only; i.e., by proper rewards and
punishments. The science of morals is nothing but the science of
legislation…This individualistic view, which is found in Locke and Pauley, and
which also appears in Butler’s theory, is reflected in the economic theories of
the French physiocrats [Françoise Quernay [1694-1774]; A. Turgo [1727-1781]]
and in Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith 1723 – 1790; all of these oppose
the old mercantile system which sprang up in Europe at the end of the Middle
Ages…The new economic philosophy is based in the idea that the individual has a
natural right to exercise his activity in the economic sphere with the least
possible interference from society [laissez faire]. The assumption is
that the unrestricted competition and with the removal of unnatural restraints
– such as monopolies or privileges – the freedom of exchange, the security of
contract and property, enlightened self-interest will promote not only the good
of the individual, but also public welfare. The conception of laissez faire is
an expression of the general theory of natural rights…The theory rendered
service in helping to discredit and overthrow the old economic system and to
deliver the individual from harmful restraints. The origin of economic
liberalism of the laissez-faire type may be traced to the ethical and political
individualism of Locke’s philosophy
1.10 Locke’s influence
General:
His Essay was the first attempt at a comprehensive theory of knowledge
in modern philosophy and inaugurated the movement which produced Berkeley and
Hume and culminated in Kant…His empirical psychology and ethical philosophy
started modern lines of development…His theory of education influenced Rousseau
and thence the entire world…His political ideas found brilliant elaboration in
Voltaire’s writings, in Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois, and a radical
reformulation in Rousseau’s Contrat social…He represents the spirit of
the modern era, spirit of independence and criticism, of individualism, of
democracy, the spirit which had sought utterance in the Reformation and the
revolutions of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which reached its
climax in the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century. No modern philosopher
has been more successful than Locke in impressing his thought on the minds and
institutions of men.
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