MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
1.1 Doctrine and dogma
While medieval philosophy is
philosophy, it is dominated by Christian themes – including the formation
of the fundamental doctrines and the influence of dogma. Transition from Greek
to Medieval philosophy as a decline in Hellenism and ascent of Christianity
including incorporation of Greek philosophical and theological ideas has been
discussed in the previous pages and in the outline of periods, names and dates
Doctrine in theology refers
to theoretical component of religious experience. Dogma refers to the first
principles at the core of doctrine, professed as true and essential by those of
the faith
1.2 The periods of medieval philosophy
The Patristic Period: from
the origins of Christianity: the time of Christ to the formation of the major
and fundamental doctrines and the triumph of Christianity as an organized
Church [ending, philosophically, with Augustine]
The Scholastic Period: of
philosophical construction devoted to the elaboration of a philosophy in which
the subject matter and guiding principles were determined by “dogma”
1.3 The patristic period:
establishment of the Christian Church and dogma
The Patristic Period was, at
least in things of the spirit, an age of richness and promise extending from
the time of Christ to the death of Augustine in 430 – or, interpreted most
widely, until the Council of Trullo in 692. Concern is with the development of
dogma in this period
Early theology. The Acts of
The period, which results
from the fusion of early Christian religion with Hellenistic philosophy, is
much richer in theology than in philosophy.
Earliest Christian
communities varied greatly in type but can be classified as [a] Gentile, and as
[b] a type still oriented largely to Jewish religion. Very early, there emerged
from these two sources: Hellenistic Christianity, exemplified by St. Paul, in
whose writing – two significant natures: [1] exaltation of Christ, [2]
interpretation of his person in then dominant Hellenistic concepts…contains
only the germ of the later doctrine of Trinity, and union of human and divine
natures in Christ
The doctrine of the Trinity
on which the whole theology of Western Christianity is ultimately based, was
not given definite form until the Council of Niacea in 325, and was established
as a secure and accepted basis of the new Church until the Trinitarian disputes
in controversy between Arians and Athanasius’ followers were settled by the
Council of Constantinople, 381, and further disputes on the relation between
the human and divine in Christ were ended – in the West at least – by the
Council of Chacedon, 451. Prior to these developments there was considerable
controversy employing Hellenistic philosophical terminology – largely Platonic
Council of Niacea 325 turned
away from Neoplatonism, and devised a formula for the Christian conception of
Jesus Christ: the son of God and at the same time truly God incarnate. The
Nicene definition established the meaning of faith which Christians were to
hold and its defenders had recourse less to philosophical or theological
speculation than to the Scripture as they understood it
Athanasius completed the
Nicene definition in such a way as to include the third member of the Trinity –
the Holy Spirit – and achieved a definition which became the starting point of
a genuinely philosophical doctrine. By doing this he set the stage for
Patristic philosophy
provided the materials of the medieval synthesis achieved during the Scholastic
Period and thereby determined the complexion of Western European Civilization
of the Middle Ages
Augustine’s ethics: The
supreme goal of human conduct is a religious, mystical one – the mind’s union
with God in the vision of God [to take place in a future, true life]…Rich and
poor alike were capable of salvation – but possession of private property is a
hindrance to the soul: Augustine places emphasis on poverty…though the highest
good is the transcendent good, a relative perfection may be obtained by
performance of external works: venial sins may be wiped out by prayer, fasting,
alms…Man was free to sin or not to sin…but this was corrupted by Adam, and the
entire human race is corrupted: now it is not possible for man not to sin…God
alone can change him
His philosophy of history:
In the City of God: a universal philosophy of history [considers temporal and
historical processes in the context of external nature and the purpose of God]:
it became the prototype of such modern – though radically different –
philosophical interpretations of history such as those offered by Rousseau,
Hegel, Comte, Nietzsche, Marx, Spengler, and Frobenius. The essential features:
[1] historical process is a purposive teleological whole, [2] the process is
predestined by God to bring about the redemption of some men and the
destruction of others [but this does not preclude free will…]
1.4 Scholastic period
The free roaming of the
human mind within the framework of dogma – in time leading to the freeing of
human reason, intellect from its theological bondage. The agenda of scholasticism:
o elaborate a system of thought which will square with dogmas
Stages: [1] Formative:
ninth-twelfth centuries: Platonism, Neoplatonism and Augustinianism are the
dominant philosophical tendencies. Universals are real essences and prior to
things; [2] culmination: Aristotle’s philosophy is dominant: universals are
real but immanent [and not transcendent]…the period of great, comprehensive
systems: Albertus Magnus and St. Thomas Aquinas. [3] Decline: fourteenth
century. Universals are not real but mere concepts, particulars alone are real,
universals are real only in the mind, hence after things: the Nominalism of
John Duns Scotus and William of Occam
Problems of Scholasticism:
[1] Relation between faith and reason, [2] relation between will and intellect,
[3] distinction between nature and grace, [4] status of universals
1.4.1
Formative Period
– the Schoolmen
John Scotus Erigena b. [
Anselm of Canterbury
[1033-1109]: first Scholastic Synthesis – proofs for the existence of God based
on Platonic conception of universals existing independently of particulars
Peter Abelard [1079 Pallet –
1142
1.4.2
Culmination
Albertus Magnus [1193-1280]
St. Thomas Aquinas [c.
1225-1274]
At the same time as this
culmination [thirteenth century], Anti-Scholastic tendencies are developing:
mysticism, pantheism, natural science:
John Fidanza [1221-1274],
called St. Bonaventura, a mystic
Roger Bacon [1214-1294]:
science
1.4.3
Decline
John Duns Scotus [b. c.
1274-1310], opposition to
William of Occam
[1280-1347], the great leader of this nominalist revival. Occam’s razor refers
to superfluous universals
Scholasticism declines after
the thirteenth century along with the rise of nationalism, mysticism, tolerance
of natural science and the spirit of free inquiry by the Church [as being not
relevant to the province of God]…including the elevation by the Church
of Aristotle’s value [originally as a conservative device]
Fourteenth Century
Mysticism: the greatest figure in this movement is Meister Eckhart, a Dominican
teacher who died in the prison of his order
…Leading to the modern period which begins with the renaissance and the [religious] reformation.
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