Erik Erikson’s Developmental Stages

Different Stages in Life, Issues and Challenges in Each Stage and Relevant Care and Counselling:Erik Erikson’s Developmental Stages

  1. Introduction

Human life comprises of different stages where an individual has to go through them. The stages of life are leveled or categories differently by different people according to their understanding and observation. Each stage has its own peculiarities and challenges and therefore for ministers, one has to know and understand each stage properly for doing pastoral care and counseling. This paper deals with the different eight stages propounded by Erik Erikson, its issues and challenges and relevant care and counseling. In short, this is known as Erik Erikson’s developmental Stages. 

2. Erik H. Erikson: Life and Works

Erik H. Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany, on June 15, 1902. There is a little mystery about his heritage: His biological father was an unnamed Danish man who abandoned Erik’s mother before he was born. His mother, Karla Abrahamsen, was a young Jewish woman who raised him alone for the first three years of his life. She then married Dr. Theodor Homberger, who was Erik’s pediatrician, and moved to Karlsruhe in southern Germany.  After completing high school, he moved to Florence to pursue his interest in art, and in 1927 became an art teacher at a psychoanalytically enlightened school for children started by Dorothy Burlingham and Anna Freud in Vienna. 

The move changed his life and career. He earned a certificate from the Maria Montessori School, and then he embarked on psychoanalytic training at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. By 1936, he had joined the Institute of Human Relations, part of the department of psychiatry at Yale University.[1] 

Erikson’s best-known work is his theory that each stage of life is associated with a specific psychological struggle, a struggle that contributes to a major aspect of personality. His developmental progression — from trust to autonomy, initiative, industry, identity, intimacy, generativity, and integrity — was conceived as the sequential reorganization of ego and character structures. Each phase was the potential root of later health and pathology. 

By focusing on the social as well as the psychological, Erikson’s stages represented a big leap in Freudian thought, which had emphasized the psychosexual nature of development. While much of his theoretical work has since been challenged, Erikson’s basic developmental framework — conflict negotiated in the context of relationships — continues to illuminate our thinking, as does the concept of the identity crisis, the confusion of roles that Erikson first identified. Another lasting contribution is Erikson’s emphasis on placing childhood squarely in the context of society. He advanced the idea that children are not simply biological organisms that endure, nor products of the psyche in isolation. Rather, they develop in the context of society’s expectations, prohibitions, and prejudices. 

Another major contribution of Erikson’s work is the notion that personality is shaped over the life span, which implies that experiences later in life can heal or ameliorate problems in early childhood. 

Finally, Erikson powerfully advocated for a “new education of children” based on self-knowledge and a complex world view that scorned “immediate diagnoses of health or sickness, judgments of goodness or badness, or advice on ‘how to’.” Erikson’s beliefs in the complexity and resilience of children and in the importance of mutuality in helping relationships led Institute founders Maria Piers, Barbara Bowman, and Lorraine Wallach to name the Institute in his honor.[2] 

3. The Eight Developmental Stages

While building and extending Freudian thinking, he aimed to move away from the overuse of terms such as ‘anal’ or ‘oral’ in analytical contexts. This led him to develop a complete advance from birth to maturity characterized by inner struggles between opposing forces at each stage.[3] The eight stages of Erik Erikson are:[4] 

3.1 Infants (0 to 1 year): A time of crisis on trust and mistrust. 

3.2 Early Childhood (2 to 3 years): A time of crisis involving the yearning for some autonomy that could result in shame and doubt. 

3.3 Childhood (3 to 6 years): A time of taking initiatives and, at the same time, having to deal with guilt because of their actions. 

3.4 School Age (7 to 12 years): A time of learning and industry with the risks of developing an inferiority complex if ridiculed. 

3.5 Adolescence (13 to 19 years): A time of psychological crisis involving identity and role confusions. 

3.6 Young Adulthood (20 to 40 years): A time of striving for some intimacy in their lives and the struggle to form close relationships. Failure could result in isolation. 

3.7 Adulthood (40 to 60 years): A time of trying to contribute something to the world. In other words, a time of generativity. Failure could result in stagnation. 

3.8 Maturity (65 years and up): A time of either contentment with the lives that had been lived or a time of despair because of failures. 

4. Issues and Challenges of the Different Stages

Erik Erikson’s stages of development are characterized by an inner struggle between opposing forces at each stage. These developmental stages proceed on an epigenetic principle. As Erikson says that out of a “ground plan the plants arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functional whole.”[5] This model is not a rigid one and allows regression and overlap at different stages.[6] 

From the figure, we can see that there are very important issues and challenges involved at each stage. In the first stage, there is the crisis of trust and mistrust. This stage revolves around the infant’s basic needs being met by the parent(s). As the infant depends upon parents for food, sustenance and comfort, the child’s understanding of the world comes from their interaction with the child. If there is warmth and affectionate treatment, the infant will have a world-view of trust. If there is mistreatment and lack of affection, the infants understanding of the world would then become one of mistrust. This would play an important part in the infant’s future life and his/her view of the world. 

Secondly, as the child gains control over his/her body, exploration of surroundings began. While the parents still provide some sense of security, the child can develop a sense of autonomy. With restrictive parents, however, the child can develop reluctance to attempt new challenges. With more developments, the child can now have an increased autonomy. But when parents or caregivers demand too much too soon, or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, the child may develop shame and doubt about their own abilities. Therefore, the main issue at this stage is autonomy, shame or doubt. 

Thirdly, the main issue at childhood is one of initiative and guilt. As the child learns to master the world around him/her, they begin to take initiatives on their own. However, when they do things, they also realize that everything they do is not necessarily acceptable by the parents. Guilt becomes a new emotion. At this stage, negative behaviors are the signs of a child’s frustration in failing to achieve what he/she attempts. 

Fourthly, there is industry vs. inferiority crisis mostly at school age. At this stage, children learn more and more and understand more of the world around them. They form ideas, values, understand individual differences. As a result, they might express their independence by being disobedient or being rebellious. The school years provide a very good opportunity for industry if children are encouraged to make and do things. At the same time, if they are always ridiculed for their ideas and punished for their efforts, they can also develop an inferiority complex about their capabilities. This can be disastrous. 

Fifthly, by adolescence, there comes the crisis of identity and identity/role confusion. They become more aware of how they might appear to others. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, they also began to ponder about the roles they will play in the adult world. Almost invariably, they will become confused, having mixed ideas and feelings about the ways in which they will fit into the adult world. Therefore, most adolescents will develop a sense of identity regarding who they are and where they are headed. Erikson is credited with the popular term “Identity Crisis.”[7] He said, “Throughout infancy and childhood, a person forms many identifications. But the need for identity in youth is not met by these.”[8] 

Sixthly, at the initial stage we tend to seek companionship and love. If negotiating this stage is successful, intimacy may be experienced on a deep level. If, however, one is not so successful, it may result in isolation and distancing from others. 

Seventhly, Erikson observed that middle-age is when one tends to be occupied with creative and meaningful work.[9] This is also the stage in which one can expect to be in charge. The task now therefore is to instill culture and values through the kids and to work for a stable environment. Through caring for others and the production of something useful for the society, there arises generativity where one avoids inactivity and meaninglessness. But there can be times when the relationships or goals change with a midlife-crisis. If one does not get through this stage successfully, one can become self-absorbed and stagnate. 

Lastly, according to Erikson, much of life is preparing for the middle age and the last stage is recovering from it.[10] If, one looks back and feels contented at what he/she has done, there arises a feeling Erik calls Integrity. But if one feels despair at one’s life, then, he/she may fear death and struggle their purpose in life. 

5. Pastoral Care and Counseling in the Different Stages

In the different stages of life, the Pastor has differing roles to play depending on the nature of the individual. This section will look into each stage and see how the Pastor can help in developing the individual. This section will be a personal reflection on what the Pastor can or should do in each stage. 

In the first stage, as the infant is developing a balance between trust and mistrust, care must be taken to develop a fine balance between the two. While trust is more important, too much of trust can lead to a false sense of trust amounting to sensory distortion and the failure to appreciate reality.[11] Needless to say, while the role of pasturing is important, the role of the parent(s) seems to be more important at this stage. Therefore, it would be advisable to see the parents being properly guided so that the infant may develop proper balance. 

In the second stage, it is now important to properly guide the child towards positive things as the child is developing an independent thought, and a basic confidence to think and act for one self. Shame and Doubt mean what they say, and obviously inhibit self-expression and developing one’s own ideas, opinions and sense of self. The parental reactions, encouragement and patience play an important role in shaping the young child’s experience and successful progression through this period. The significance of parental reaction is not limited to bottoms and pooh - it concerns all aspects of toddler exploration and discovery while small children struggle to find their feet - almost literally - as little people in their own right. The parental balancing act is a challenging one, especially since parents themselves have to deal with their own particular psychosocial crisis, and of course deal with the influence of their own emotional triggers which were conditioned when they themselves passed through earlier formative crisis stages.[12] 

In the third stage, the role of the Pastor is more significant as because of the need to give young children enough space and encouragement so as to foster a sense of purpose and confidence, but to protect against danger, and also to enable a sensible exposure to trial and error, and to the consequences of mistakes, without which an irresponsible or reckless tendency can develop.[13] 

The fourth stage is a critical stage. Erikson described this stage as a sort of ‘entrance to life’. Because of this the Pastor need to help develop the child’s own capabilities and strengths and unique potential. Engaging with others and using tools or technology are also important aspects of this stage. It is like a rehearsal for being productive and being valued at work in later life. Inferiority is feeling useless; unable to contribute, unable to cooperate or work in a team to create something, with the low self-esteem that accompanies such feelings.[14] 

During adolescence, identity becomes important as the child becomes more conscious about themselves relation to the world. It’s a sense of self or individuality in the context of life and what lies ahead. Role Confusion is the negative perspective - an absence of identity - meaning that the person cannot see clearly or at all who they are and how they can relate positively with their environment. This stage coincides with puberty or adolescence, and the reawakening of the sexual urge whose dormancy typically characterizes the previous stage. Young people struggle to belong and to be accepted and affirmed, and yet also to become individuals. In itself this is a big dilemma, aside from all the other distractions and confusions experienced at this life stage.[15] The role of the Pastor in guiding and bringing about proper balance is essential for a healthy development of the child. 

When the child attains young adulthood, they began to strive for intimacy with family and marital or mating partner(s).[16] Pastoral guidance during this stage is critical importance as this stage can have long lasting effects on the life of the individual. 

During adulthood, since there is the intention of generativity, pastoral guidance towards the achievements of goals and the purpose of their lives is essential. Even if there is stagnation, good pastoral counseling and guidance can bring about a reversal of behavior and nature that can bring about good results. 

Finally, in the last stage, pastoral counseling and care is needed, especially for those who seem to regret what they have done in their past. It is important to help the person to look back on their lives positively and happily if they have left the world a better place than they found it - in whatever way, to whatever extent. There lies Integrity and acceptance.[17] 

6. Overview and Conclusion

Erik Erikson has developed these eight psychological stages of development and he believed that growth occurs in stages and that each stage is dependent upon the completion of the previous stage. The stages as mentioned above are- trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role confusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair.[18]

Eric Erickson, in his Childhood and Society (2^nd Ed.), made the case that human development proceeds in stages beginning at birth. In total, eight stages, organized in a more or less strict order, and constitute the task of an individual’s development. At each stage, there is a tension or struggle between polar opposite tendencies, which operate to create a resultant “virtue” or coping ability. When the skills associated with any stage are acquired, the individual is able to move on to meet the exigencies of the next level. Since enculturation is a development task, we assume that requirements of one’s identity group help to define each of the various stage of development traverse by its children. We cannot assume that Erickson’s stages are universal to all humankind. We must assume, rather, that the stages have been successfully negotiated and the attendant virtues secured when the rules of that cultures dictate.[19]

Table 1. ERICKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT.[20]

STAGES (in years)		THESE TENSIONS/ CONFLICT TO BE RESOLVED	POSITIVE OUTCOME	NEGATIVE OUTCOME	PRODUCE THESE VIRTUES
1	Birth to 2	Trust vs. mistrust	A sense of trust	A sense of mistrust	Hope
2	2 to 3	Autonomy vs. shame & doubt	A sense of autonomy	A sense of shame & doubt	Willpower
3	3 to 6	Initiative vs. guilt	A sense of initiative	A sense of guilt	Purpose
4	6 to 12	Industry vs. inferiority	A Sense of industry	A sense of inferiority	Competence
5	12 to 18	Identity vs. identity diffusion	A sense of clear identity	A sense of identity & role confusion	Fidelity
6	18 to 35	Intimacy vs. isolation	A sense of intimacy	A sense of isolation	Love
7	35 to 60	Generativity vs. stagnation	A sense of generativity	A sense of stagnation	Care
8	60 till death	Integrity vs. despair & despair	A sense of ego integrity	A sense of despair	Wisdom

For Erikson, it is obvious that each stage must be successfully negotiated. No virtues grow until and unless each stages has been completed, and they will encounter difficulty in subsequent stages. When this happens, the individual must re-engage the previous, unresolved stage in order to acquire its coping powers and incorporate them into his or her repertoire.[21] Keeping this in mind, one ought to know the different emotions, temperaments and virtues of different stages in order to care and counsel one’s client effectively. Also there are both negative and positive outcome in each stages and therefore, proper study of each stage is necessary for a counselor. Knowing the counselee will greatly contribute to meaningful and effective process of counseling. 

 

REFERENCES

Books

Coonan, Patrick R. NCLEX-RN For Dummies. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2006.

Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. New York: Norton, 1963.

Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. New York: Vintage, 1995.

Erikson, Erik. Identity: Youth and Crisis. London: Faber and Faber, 1968.

Gonzalez, Josue M., Conflicts, Disputes, and Tensions Between Identity Groups: What Modern School Leaders Should Know. North Carolina: IAP, 2009.

Hurling, Roger. Roots and Shoots: A Guide to Counseling and Psychotherapy. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985.

Jr., J. Eugene Wright. Erikson: Identity and Religion. New York: Seabury Press, 1982.

 

Web Resources

Arlene F. Harder, “The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson,” retrieved from http://www.isd361.k12.mn.us/schools/fhs/developmenterikerikson.pdf

http://www.social-psychology.de/do/pt_erikson.pdf

http://www.erikson.edu/about/history/erik-erikson/

http://www.siskiyous.edu/class/ece3/eriksonsstagesthroughidentity.pdf

www.cystinosis.org/.../psychosocial/stages of development.pdf

http://www.businessballs.com/erik_erikson_psychosocial_theory.htm#erikson_psychosocial_theory_summary

 

 

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[1] http://www.social-psychology.de/do/pt_erikson.pdf, accessed on 16-11-2015

[2] http://www.erikson.edu/about/history/erik-erikson/ accessed on 16-11-2015

[3] Roger Hurding, Roots and Shoots: A Guide to Counseling and Psychotherapy (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985) 89-90.

[4] Much of the following information on the different stages are taken from two helpful websites: siskiyous.edu/class/ece3/eriksonsstagesthroughidentity.pdf and www.cystinosis.org/.../psychosocial/stages of development.pdf Accessed 18/11/2015, 20:59.

[5] Erik Erikson, Identity: Youth and Crisis (London: Faber and Faber, 1968) 92.

[6] Roger Hurding, Roots and Shoots… 90.

[7] Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: Norton, 1963)

[8] J. Eugene Wright Jr., Erikson: Identity and Religion (New York: Seabury Press, 1982) 73.

[9] From an online pdf file without any author at www.siskiyous.edu/class/ece3/eriksonsstagesthroughidentity.pdf. Accessed 20-11-15, 3:02PM.

[10] Arlene F. Harder, “The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson,” retrieved from http://www.isd361.k12.mn.us/schools/fhs/developmenterikerikson.pdf, Accessed 20-11-15, 4:55PM.

[11] http://www.businessballs.com/erik_erikson_psychosocial_theory.htm#erikson_psychosocial_theory_summary, Accessed 17/11/2015, 4.00pm.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Ibid.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Patrick R. Coonan, NCLEX-RN For Dummies (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2006), 114.

[19] Josue M. Gonzalez, Conflicts, Disputes, and Tensions Between Identity Groups: What Modern School Leaders Should Know (North Carolina: IAP, 2009), 15.

[20] Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: Vintage, 1995), 184.

[21] Josue M. Gonzalez, Conflicts, Disputes,… 15.