Tuesday, 24 February 2026

VIOLENCE AND PEACE IN THE ROMAN COLONIAL CONTEXT

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VIOLENCE AND PEACE IN THE ROMAN COLONIAL CONTEXT

Introduction  

In this paper we seek to attempt to introduce the reader the different forms of violence perpetuated in the Roman colonial context followed by a critical assessment of the understanding of Pax Romana i.e. the Roman Peace. The purpose of this essay is to make the reader aware of the different forms of violence employed in the Roman colonial context thereby resulting in oppression, marginalization and slavery.  

1. Delienation of the terms

1.1 Violence

Violence is the use of physical force, usually with an intent to violate or destroy. It is a violation of God’s perfect order.[1] The Hebrew concept of violence (from Heb. ḥāmās, “treat or act violently”) concerns ethical, physical wrong, extreme wickedness, malicious witness; institutional injustice; injurious language and violent mechanisms. It designates innocent suffering, with human subjects and object, resulting from greed or hatred, but not natural catastrophes. Another term, gāzal, means “to take by force; steal; tear away” or “robbery; a thing plundered or spoiled; extorting justice.” Greek words include bɩ́ā, “hostile force”; biastḗs, “a violent person”; and biázō, “to enter violently” or “to destroy, murder.”[2]

1.2 Peace

Peace is a state of tranquility as a freedom from civil disturbance; a state of security or order within a community provided for by law or custom; freedom from disquieting or oppressive thoughts or emotions; harmony in personal relations. It can also be understand as a state or period of mutual concord between governments; a pact or agreement to end hostilities between those who have been at war or in a state of enmity.[3]

The Old Testament meaning of peace was “Completeness, soundness and well-being of the total person”. This peace was considered God-given, obtained by following by law (Ps. 119:165). Peace sometimes had a physical meaning, suggesting security (Ps. 4:8), contentment (Is. 26:3), prosperity (Ps. 122:6-7) and the absence of war (1 Sam. 7:14).[4]

In the New Testament, Peace often refers to the inner tranquility and poise of the Christian whose trust is in God through Christ. This understanding was originally expressed in the Old Testament writings about coming Messiah (Isa. 9:6-7). The peace that Jesus Christ spoke of was a combination of justice, hope, trust, and quiet in the mind and soul, brought about by reconciliation with God and with the people.[5]

2. VIOLENCE IN THE ROMAN COLONIAL CONTEXT

2.1. War in the Roman context

Conquest brought tangible benefits. Therefore, the law of war in antiquity assured and legitimized them. Exploration of land, seizure of movable goods, imposition of monetary penalties, and enslavement of the enemy went unquestioned as the earned emoluments of the victor. Romans certainly never question them. The society persistently prepared for war, most of whose adult male could expect to see active military duty, appreciated both the risks and the rewards of battle. The carrying off of spoils and exaction of indemnity enriched the state. Enslavement or sale of defeated enemies helped stock the plantations of rural Italy. [6]

Romans had concrete expectations from war. Soldiers enrolled eagerly for war and battle when commanders pointed out the prospects for plunder. This enticements seduced recruits for the various wars fought by the Romans during the first centuries (both CE & BCE). They glimpsed the wealthy life-styles of veterans of previous eastern wars and swiftly filled up the ranks.[7]

War meant booty. The Roman army even had routine, established procedures for collection and distribution of loot. Commanders, in fact, had a considerable leeway in the matter of booty. Distribution to the soldiers was essential; morale and politics demanded it. Occasionally all the loot was disposed of in this fashion[8].

The spoils of war included the grimmest of commodities: human beings. The influx of slaves into Italy reached massive proportions in the third and second centuries. Total figures are impossible to come by, but there is no question that the era of the Punic Wars witnessed a sharp jump in numbers of slaves imported; war and the activities of the slave mart kept the process throughout most of the second century.[9]

Enslavement of war prisoners or their sale into slavery had a long history in the Roman experience and in antiquity generally. The process stands on records again and again during the Republic’s fight for control of Italy in the fifth and fourth centuries, sell before the emergence of slave-based agriculture on any scale.[10]

Roman rule impinged on central areas of life which were particularly sensitive in the Jewish religion. Roman troops perforce became a constant presence in the country and the cause of great disasters to the Jews and Roman themselves viewed the Jews as troublesome subject[11]. The Judean ruling class was condemned to extinction and the worship of God in the Jerusalem Temple was brought to an end. Many rich land-owners were imprisoned, enslaved or executed. Priests who surrendered when the Temple was already on fire were put to death on the ground that it behooved them to perish with the sanctuary. Most of those who escaped without physical punishment lost their land, which was confiscated and sold up to the highest bidder and the rich were subjected along with other[12].   

2.2 Subjugation of Women:

The position of women in the Roman Empire was characterized by a long period of legal subjugation and family dependence that improved progressively from the time of the late Republic. The submissive condition of women in early Roman society was maintained by the nearly all-encompassing right enjoyed by husbands and fathers within the paterfamilias. According to this dominating patriarchal system, women were excluded from all forms of public life and remained in a kind of legal servitude to their husbands, fathers or nearest male relative.[13]

In the early Roman law, woman entering a marriage under her husband’s authority left her father’s potestas and household to join her husband. The husband had no legal authority during the marriage over his wife who was in her father’s power, but also had no general responsibility of maintenance.[14] Legitimate marriage was traditionally accompanied by a dowry from the wife or her father to the husband in order to guarantee her expanses of the household. The dowry came under the ownership of the husband for the duration of the marriage, but had to be returned if the marriage was dissolved by divorce or death of the husband.[15] But according to the intestate (A legal document that says what happen to a person’s property when they die) succession, the wife was entitled to an equal share of the patrimony as a primary intestate heir along with her children after the death of the husband.[16]

In the Roman Republic, a man could legally kill his wife or daughter if they questioned his authority. Husbands beat their wives to death because they had some wine where everyone considered as an excellent example of one who had justly paid the penalty for violating the laws of seriousness. They were not blamed and charged with a crime for their treatment to their wives.[17] Women were also kept out of positions of power. They were not allowed to be senators, governors, lawyers, judges or any of the other official positions involved in running the Roman Empire. Women were also not allowed to vote in elections.[18]

2.3 Economic Inequalities:

The Roman economy was underdeveloped. This shows that the mass of the population lived at or near subsistence level. In a typical underdeveloped, pre-industrial economy, a large proportion of the labour force is employed in agriculture, which is the main avenue for investment and source of wealth.[19]

Agricultural economy was based upon subsistence farming. Its backbone was the class of free peasants who produced mainly for their own consumption, only exchanging the small surplus left over. In the early days of Rome, money played an unimportant role in the economic life of society. But a long period of wars and foreign conquests had radically transformed the Roman economy. With the emergence of Rome as a world power and the consequent expansion of trade on an international scale, money begins to play a more important role, first as silver, later as copper and gold. For the first time, exchange and money-relations begin to dominate economic life. This led to the disintegration of the old social forms.[20] 

The rise of money economy put an end to the relative equality of the early days of the Republic, and it resulted an increasing polarisation between the rich and poor.[21] Regardless of this institutionalized inequality, the Roman Republic flourishes. Those in the upper classes had a sense of responsibility; nobles oblige, and spent their wealth and efforts on public goods ranging from entertaining games to public buildings and temples to aqueducts. Those in the lower classes had enough–they were small farmers and businessmen, and they were able to provide enough men for Rome's main industry i.e., war. The creation of a huge slave class led to the creation of huge factories and farms, undercutting the smallholders. The rich got richer, to the point where the Republic was no longer stable.[22]

2.4 Slavery

Finley Patterson as quoted by Albert Harrill states that “Slavery is the permanent, violent domination of natally alienated and generally dishonored person”. He said; “slavery is neither simply the loss of freedom, nor the same as coerced labor, nor equitable with loss of civil rights”.[23] The subjugation of the Roman slaves was a result of the territorial conquests of the empire. As new land was acquired, the population of the area became the property of the Roman Empire as well. The captives of the land joined the other slaves of the republic who had been stationed in this position by the same situation as the census. Roman slavery was either a result of captivity or punishment for rejection of governmental rule.[24]

Once the slaves were acquired, slaves were sold at the slave auction under the jurisdiction of aediles. Slaves with special talent were sold for higher prices, and female slaves were cheaper than males. It was cheaper to purchase new slaves than breed more, and so the slave public sale were always highly populated and well attended. Roman slave were treated as members of the family. There are two categories of slaves: field slave and domestic slaves. Slave’s punishment was mild, and they get holidays from their regular duties on certain occasion and festivals. If the slaves runaway then fugitive were branded on their forehead, and the later treatment of slaves included whippings, requirement of the slaves to work in fetters, and beatings with sticks.[25]

Greco-Roman slaves system was an integral part of every aspect of life in Paul’s time. Estimate are that 85-90 person of the inhabitants of Rome Peninsula in Italy were slave or slave’s origin in the first and the second centuries A.D. Facts and figures about slavery in the provinces are sketchy by comparison with those in Italy, but the existing evidence suggests a comparable percentage.[26]

Slaves were also artisans, workers in crafts, architects, physicians, administrators, philosophers, grammarians, writer and teachers. Frequently they worked for industrial or building corporations for daily wages that were then paid in part their owners. Sometimes slaves worked alongside freed persons, and freeborn workers. Such competition depressed wages and eliminated inflation from the fourth century B.C. to the end of the first century A.D. Cicero says that a slave could expect freedom in seven years, but in any case, under Roman law, persons in slavery could expect to be set free at least by time they reached age thirty.[27]

2.5 Crucifixion

Crucifixion was another extreme form of punishment during the Roman period. Josephus (as quote by Collins) calls it “the most wretched of deaths”. In order of increasing severity, the aggravated methods of execution were decapitation, burning, and crucifixion. At times throwing victims to wild animals took the place of decapitation. Crucifixion was much easier to carry out and could also serve as a public spectacle. For example, at the time of Caligula (a.d. 37–41) under the prefect Flaccus some Jews were tortured and crucified in the amphitheater of Alexandria to entertain the people[28].

  Roman practice of crucifixion as a form of execution was one of the most disgraceful and cruel methods of execution and usually was reserved only for slaves, foreigners, revolutionaries, and the vilest of criminals. It was a form of torture and capital punishment that was designed to produce a slow death with maximum pain and suffering. Roman law usually protected Roman citizens from crucifixion, except perhaps in the case of desertion by soldiers.[29]

There are three literary evidence of observation:[30]

a.     The act of crucifixion was heinously cruel. The procedure itself damaged no vital organs, and it is unlikely that any wounds inflicted in the practice would have resulted in excessive bleeding. The likely cause of the consequently sow death, then, would have been shock or painful process of asphyxiation as the muscles used in breathing were exhausted.  Crucifixion was largely reserved for those of lower status and above all, for dangerous criminal’s insurrectionist.

b.    Crucifixion was a public affair. Naked and fastened to a stake, cross or tree on a well-traveled route or crossroads, the executed was subjected to savage ridicule by passersby. Moreover, under Roman practice the person crucified was denied burial, the corpse left on the cross as carrion for the birds or to rot. In this way, the general populate was reminded of the fate of those who resisted the authority of the state.

c.     It is clear that no standard form of crucifixion was uniformly practiced. The victim might be bound or nailed to the cross, with or without a cross beam, in one of a variety of positions. It is not even clear whether crucifixion always took place before or after the death of the subject. The Romans appear to have practiced a more constant form of crucifixion: It included a flogging beforehand; victims often carried the crossbeam to the place of crucifixion, where they nailed or bound to the cross with arms extended, raise up, and perhaps seated on a sedicula or small wooden peg. On the other hand, as Josephus reports, even among the Romans the method of crucifixion was subjected to the whims of military leaders.

3. Critical Assessment of the understanding of Pax Romana

It is undeniable that wars were being fought, people were subjugated to slavery and women were marginalized in the Roman colonial context as mentioned above. So the immediate question arises that ‘Was there a Pax Romana’? Or another way of putting this is ‘Is it possible that the understanding of Pax Romana was just illusory’?[31] The present writer will hold on to the latter position here saying that the paradoxical notion of Pax Romana was just abstract, illusory and nothing less.

The gospels give us a certain perspective of the Roman world in which the gospel happened. In Luke’s gospel, Chapter 2, Luke[32] talks about the birth of Jesus. “This mechanism helps us to understand what the world then was, the world called by its propagandists, ‘pax Romana’- the peace of Rome.”[33] “This Pax Romana was a whole system, with political, economic, ideological and military underlinings, and it was a system which was built up from two different things. One was the center, where Rome was. There you had tremendous richness, merchandise brought from all over the world, fantastic art, architecture and many beautiful things. People enjoyed life. But this is just one side of Pax Romana.”[34] The other side was the provinces, the periphery and small little countries like Palestine. What you find there is starvation, people living just on the survival level. In the New Testament almost every page talks about the people who are hungry, suffering from various diseases and disenfranchised. “This is the other side of what the Roman propagandists called “pax Romana.” It is the exploitation and the militarization of the periphery which surrounded the old world of Rome.”[35] This was the system in which the rich became richer and the poor became poorer. Solle Dorothee rightly points out that the people who were opposed to this peace and worked against it were called terrorists and were crucified. It was called peace although it was war. It was called justice although it was exploitation. It was a peace which was built on militarism, on mere force. That is the peace we had in this Pax Romana.[36]

The context in which we live today is no different from the Roman colonial context. With the rise of industrialization, globalization and militarism the world is threatened by nuclear weapons and we are at the threshold of the third world war. Many people want to have peace in both ways; they love the peace of Christ as well as the peace of Rome. They want to have it in both ways. But this is impossible. You cannot have it both ways. “You can have the peace of Christ, and that means a peace which is built on justice and the struggle for justice. Or you can have the peace of the Romans, which is built on militarism and violence. You cannot combine these two things and believe that they go along pretty well.”[37]

On the contrary the peace which is promised in the New Testament is a peace which is built upon justice. Without justice there can be no peace. “And the pax Christi, the peace of Christ, is built on justice. Justice is the true name of this peace, which is so different from the peace of the Romans.”[38]

Conclusion

In the light of what has been expounded in this essay, it is clear that under the Roman colonial context people were subjugated, oppressed and put to death. In conclusion we would like to assert that through the use of violence peace can never be attained. The real peace is only achieved in Christ. It will be fair enough to quote Dorothee Solle here who says- Many people want to have peace in both ways; they love the peace of Christ as well as the peace of Rome. They want to have it in both ways. But this is impossible. You cannot have it both ways. “You can have the peace of Christ, and that means a peace which is built on justice and the struggle for justice. Or you can have the peace of the Romans, which is built on militarism and violence. You cannot combine these two things and believe that they go along pretty well.”[39]

 

Bibliography

Duggan, Cheryl A. Kirk “Violence” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman Grand  Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000.

Erich S, Gruen. The Hellenistic World and the comings of Rome. London: University of California Press, 1984.

Frederick C, Mish. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Eleventh ed. Springfield, Mass: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003 [Libronix Digital Library System]

Gerald G, Collins. ‘Crucifixion’ Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by Freedman, David Noel New York: Doubly, 1996.

Garnsey, Peter and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987.

Harrill, Albert. The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity. Tubingen: Mohr, 1995.

Hawthorne, Gerald F. and Ralph P. Martin, “Slave, Slavery”, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, eds., 881-882.

Hawthorne, Gerald F. and Ralph P. Martin, “Crucifixion”, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, eds., 197-199.

Jonathan J, Price. Jerusalem under Siege: The collapse of the Jewish State 66-70 C.E. New York: E.J. Brill, 1992.

Martin, Goodman. The ruling class of Judea: The origins of the Jewish revolt against Rome AD 66-70 Melbourne: Cambridge University Press.

Mary, Lefkowitz R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women’s Life in Greece and Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.

Richard P, Saller. “Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies in the Roman Household,” in Women & Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture edited by Sandra R. Joshel and Sheila Murnaghan. London: Routledge, 1998.

Rich, John and Graham Shipley, War and Society in the Roman World. New York: Routledge, 1993.

Ronald F, Youngblood. Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary. London: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995, [Libronix Digital Library System]

Solle, Dorothee. “Justice is the true name of Peace,” Church and Society. (May/June 1983): 14-22.

Webliography:

http://romanatoz.blogspot.in/2011/03/status-of-women.html.

http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/ROMwomen.htm.

http://www.marxist.com/class-struggles-roman-republic-eight.htm.

http://www.unexplained-mysteries.com/column.php?id=238588.

http://cbcg.org/scourging_crucifixion.htm

http://cbcg.org/scourging_crucifixion.htm

http://www.historyteacher.net/EuroCiv/Resources/readingRomanSlaveryAndtheSpartacusRevolt.pdf

http://www.historyteacher.net/EuroCiv/Resources/readingRomanSlaveryAndtheSpartacusRevolt.pdf

 

 

 


[1] Ronald F. Youngblood, Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, (London: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995) [Libronix Digital Library System]

[2] Cheryl A. Kirk Duggan, “Violence” Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, edited by David Noel Freedman (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2000), 1357.

[3] Frederick C. Mish,  Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. Eleventh ed. Springfield, Mass. : Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003 [Libronix Digital Library System]

[4] Ronald F. Youngblood, Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, (London: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1995)

[5] Ronald F. Youngblood, Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary...,

[6] Erich S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the comings of Rome, (London: University of California Press, 1984), 288.

[7] Erich S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the comings of Rome..., 289.

[8] Erich S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the comings of Rome..., 290.

[9] Erich S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the comings of Rome..., 295.

[10] Erich S. Gruen, The Hellenistic World and the comings of Rome..., 296.

[11] Jonathan J. Price, Jerusalem Under Siege: The Collapse of the Jewish State 66-70 C.E. (New York: E.J. Brill, 1992), 2-3.

[12] Martin Goodman, The Ruling Class of Judea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt Against Rome AD 66-70 (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 231.

[14] Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1987)130.

[15] Richard P. Saller, “Symbols of Gender and Status Hierarchies in the Roman Household,” in Women & Slaves in Greco-Roman Culture edited by Sandra R. Joshel and Sheila Murnaghan (London: Routledge, 1998)87.

[16] Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture..., 130.

[17] Mary R. Lefkowitz and Maureen B. Fant, Women’s Life in Greece and Rome……………….96.

[19] Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture..., 130.

[23] J. Albert Harrill, The Manumission of Slaves in Early Christianity (Tubingen: Mohr, 1995), 16-17.

[26]  Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin, “Slave, Slavery”, in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, eds., (England: Intervarsity Press, 1993), 881-882.

[27] Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin, “Slave, Slavery”, in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters..., 881-882.

 

[28]Gerald G. O’ Collins, ‘Crucifixion’ in Anchor Bible Dictionary Edited by Freedman, David Noel (New York: Doubly, 1996) 1207.

[30]  Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin, “Crucifixion”, Dictionary of Paul and His Letters..., 197-199.

[31] John Rich and Graham Shipley, War and Society in the Roman World (New York: Routledge, 1993), 150.

[32] Note: The question of whether Luke is the author of the gospel is still debated among the scholars, but here we would hold on to the traditional position of Luke being the author of the gospel, because it is no matter of concern for us over here.

[33] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society, (May/June 1983): 18.

[34] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society..., 18.

[35] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society..., 18.

[36] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society..., 18-19; Peter Oakes, “A State of Tension: Rome in the New Testament,” in The Gospel of Matthew in its Roman Imperial Context, (New York: T & T Clark International, 2005), 75-77.

[37] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society..., 19.

[38] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society..., 18-19.

[39] Dorothee Solle, “Justice is the true name of Peace,” in Church and Society..., 19.

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