Roman Religion

In addition to the major philosophical systems, the Roman world offered a smorgasbord of religious options. There were, first of all, the numerous gods known to us from Greek and Roman mythology (Zeus, Aphrodite, Apollo, and others). Most of these had temples in their honor, and people were invited to engage in various festivities and practices to earn the gods’ favor or celebrate their gifts.

Some people in the empire appear to have taken this very seriously and literally. For others, the ostensibly religious observances were more social and symbolic experiences, something akin to modern people celebrating Christmas with rituals designed around the Santa Claus story. Thus when Roman pagans converted to Christianity, there was some question as to whether purely social observances connected with pagan mythology were incompatible with their new faith. Some Roman Christians saw nothing wrong with celebrating traditional festivals inspired by stories of mythical gods, whom they knew to be unreal. Other Christians (like most Jews) saw this as a dire compromise. Something similar probably applied to emperor worship. The Roman emperors often were identified as divine figures to whom appropriate homage was due.

In popular piety, various miracles and divine benefits were attributed to the emperors. Beyond this, however, no real “religion” developed around the emperors: what Jews and Christians regarded as “worship” of emperors, most Romans saw as simple acts of patriotism (analogous to pledging allegiance to a flag). The Romans rarely understood why Christians refused to pay such homage to Caesar.

The Roman world also featured a wide variety of cults that modern scholars identify as “mystery religions.” The mystery religions were organized around gods and goddesses from various mythologies: Demeter, Dionysius, Orpheus, Cybele, Astarte (Ishtar), and Artemis (Diana) were particularly popular. They differed from one another but always involved participation in secret rites, such as ritual washings, common meals, and sometimes sexual rites related to concerns for fertility (of crops or of humans).

The secret knowledge that was obtained allowed the devotees to bond with the god or goddess in this life and to establish an intimate connection that would continue in the world beyond death. We know that these religions were popular, but we know little about them because their practitioners deliberately kept their ideas and practices secret. What reports we do have might be hyperbolic accounts based on speculation and rumor. After all, Christianity was regarded as a mystery religion by some Romans when it first appeared, and early reports concerning Christian worship included allegations of orgies and cannibalism—probably because the Christians called their eucharistic meal a “love feast” and talked about “eating the body of Christ.”

Finally, it might be helpful to mention a few other areas of spiritual interest that were so widespread in the New Testament world that they need not be connected with any one particular religion.

Animism

There was widespread belief in the existence of spirits, good and bad, and in the possibility that these spirits could possess people and animals. They could also dwell in rocks, trees, streams, and other phenomena. The common perception was that such spirits interacted with the world of nature—for example, storms at sea were caused by water sprites; diseases were caused by demonic possession.

As a result of these beliefs, protective amulets often were worn by people from all social classes, and magical potions and spells were used to influence or manipulate the spirits into doing one’s bidding. The city of Ephesus appears to have been a center for these magical arts (see Acts 19:11–21). Along these same lines, we should note that virtually everyone in the New Testament world believed in ghosts (spirits of the departed); some tried to contact them.

Augury and Divination

There was great interest in knowing the future: dreams, visions, and other portents could reveal the future, but an interpreter might be needed to know their meaning. Priests known as augurs tried to determine the will of the gods by observing flight patterns or eating habits of birds (the “auspices”). Professional oracles, usually women, claimed to have the ability to predict the future for those who sought them out (and performed required services).

The most famous of these was at Delphi in Greece. Astrology was also practiced, offering predictions of the future (and attendant advice for the present) based on the observation of stars, which were believed to be deities affecting earthly events.

Supernaturalism

There was common acknowledgment among most people in the Roman world that what we might regard as supernatural events could and did occur: what we deem impossible, they considered extraordinary. Miracles often were attributed to individuals who seemed to have an especially close link to the spiritual realm; a person believed to have such a link was called a theios anēr (“divine man”). Examples of such “divine men” include Honi the Circle Drawer (a Jewish teacher from the first century BCE) and Apollonius of Tyana (a Greek philosopher from the first century CE). Jesus, who lived in between the lifetimes of these two individuals, no doubt would have been regarded as a theios anēr by Romans who heard the miracle stories reported in the New Testament.

Interestingly, while women were more likely to be regarded as oracles who could predict the future, most miracle-workers were men.