Roman Ruler
Herod the Great
Herod the Great ruled all of Palestine from 37 to 4 BCE. He was first appointed king by Marc Antony but was later confirmed in that position by Antony’s archrival, Caesar Augustus. The fact that he attained support from both of these rival leaders indicates that he was adept at political maneuvering (switching sides at exactly the right time). Herod would also become known as a master builder; his projects included a harbor at Caesarea and a number of fortresses (including Masada, Machaerus, and the Herodium). He rebuilt the ancient city of Samaria into the Greek metropolis Sebaste and, perhaps most important, was responsible for expanding and refurbishing the Jewish temple in Jerusalem. At the time of Jesus, this “Herodian temple” was regarded as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world; its pinnacle was the highest architectural point in the world. Ethnically an Idumean, Herod was considered to be “half-Jewish,” but he was viewed by the Jewish people as a foreigner and a Roman collaborator. Though Herod the Great appears to have been a competent ruler in many respects, he was famously paranoid to the point that he actually inspired a Roman proverb attributed to Caesar Augustus: “Better to be a pig than a son in the house of Herod” (the Romans found it humorous that Herod did not eat pork but did kill three of his children when he suspected them of wanting to usurp his throne). Herod also murdered his Jewish wife, Mariamne, when he suspected her of plotting against him, and this incident inspired numerous legends (e.g., tales of how he remained hopelessly in love with her and/or was haunted by her ghost). Herod was ruler of Palestine at the time Jesus was born (Matt. 2:1), and he remains known to Christians for the biblical story in which he confronts the magi and orders a massacre of babies in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1–18).
Herod Antipas
Herod Antipas
ruled Perea and Galilee from 4 BCE to 39 CE. In Roman literature he is often
referred to simply as “Antipas,”
but the New Testament Gospels consistently call him “Herod,”
and this can lead to some confusion, since Herod the Great is also called “Herod”
in the New Testament. In any case, Herod Antipas ruled less territory than did
Herod the Great (whose lands were divided when he died), and he was only a
tetrarch, not a king. Still, his tenure was a long one, and it included the
entire time of Jesus’s life and ministry in Galilee.
About the time Jesus began his public ministry, John the Baptist criticized Antipas for marrying his niece Herodias, who was already married to a different uncle. Antipas had John arrested and, later, beheaded at Herodias’s request (Mark 6:14–29). Luke’s Gospel reports that Antipas also took an ominous interest in Jesus, who refers to the ruler as a “fox” (13:31–33)—probably a reference to his penchant for violence (the Jews considered foxes to be rapacious animals that would kill not only for food but also for sport). According to Luke, Antipas heard speculation that Jesus might be John the Baptist raised from the dead (9:7–9), and he examined Jesus briefly when he was arrested in Jerusalem, hoping to see Jesus perform a miracle (23:6–12).
Pontius Pilate
Pontius Pilate
ruled Judea as a prefect or procurator from 26 to 36 CE. He was, in essence, a
governor who served as the representative of Caesar. Pilate is portrayed in
some literature (notably the writings of Philo of Alexandria) as a cruel ruler
who hated the Jews and did not understand their religion. Some scholars think
that this vilification is perhaps exaggerated, but many reports do indicate
that Pilate’s term in office was marred by episodes of conflict and violence.
During his first week in power he sought to install imperial banners in
Jerusalem, which precipitated a crisis among Jews, who saw the banners as
idolatrous. Embarrassed, Pilate removed the banners in response to virulent
protest and threats of riot. He later used temple funds to finance an aqueduct,
and this precipitated more protests, but this time he did not back down; he
sent soldiers (disguised as civilians) into the crowd of protesters and, at a prearranged
signal, had them beat and kill people at random.
The New
Testament reports that Pilate was the governor who sentenced Jesus to be
crucified while also declaring him to be innocent (Matt. 27:1–26;
Mark 15:1–15; Luke 23; John 18:28–19:26).
Some years later, Pilate was recalled after using extreme force to suppress a
religious revival led by a Samaritan prophet. Two more procurators of Judea
figure in later New Testament stories: Felix (53–60
CE) and Festus (60–62 CE), both of whom kept Paul
imprisoned in Caesarea and presided over his hearings there (Acts 23–25).
Herod Agrippa I
Herod Agrippa I ruled Galilee (like Herod Antipas) from 37 to 41 CE and then became king over all of Palestine (like his grandfather Herod the Great) from 41 to 44 CE. He is also simply called “Herod” in the New Testament, which can be confusing for readers who do not realize there are three different people who bear that name; also, the person called “Agrippa” in Acts 25:13–26:32 is not Herod Agrippa I but is a later ruler of Galilee whom historians call “Herod Agrippa II.” Herod Agrippa I was a politically popular and successful ruler, but he persecuted the fledgling Christian movement in Jerusalem, putting Jesus’s disciple James to death and imprisoning Peter (Acts 12:1–3). He ultimately met with a somewhat gruesome death, which the New Testament attributes to divine wrath (Acts 12:20–23).
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