What is Tlawmngaihna in Mizo Culture? (From the Lens of Tribal and Dalit Theology)

Tlawmngaihna (pronounced Tlawm-ngaih-na) is the highest ethical code of the Mizo people. There is no direct English translation — it is bigger than hospitality, bigger than kindness. Some translate it as ‘altruism’ but it fails to encompass the scope and succinctness of its core concept.

If Mizo culture is a body, Tlawmngaihna is its heart.

5 Pillars of Tlawmngaihna:

1. To suffer loss for others: Mahni tana hlawkna aiin, midang tana hlawkna. My host Pu Tluanga family showed this — they gave their best room, best food, while they adjusted. Five-star hotels sell room, Mizo home sells heart.

2. To be hospitable without expectation: In Lunglei CCM Inkhawmpui Lian, 450+ delegates came. No hotel could host them. Every Mizo home became a hotel, free, with a smile. That is Tlawmngaihna.

3. To put others first: The Mizo saying: Sem sem dam dam, ei bil thi thi. Share and live, self-eat and die.

4. Courage + Compassion together: A Mizo warrior was Tlawmngai if he fought for the weak, not for fame.

5. The Theology connection: Like Dalit Theology says God is on the side of the oppressed, Tlawmngaihna says a true Mizo stands on the side of the guest, the tired, the stranger. My host family lived Dalit Theology without reading it.

From the Lens of Tribal and Dalit Theology

Many asked me — why did you connect a simple host family in Lunglei to Dalit/Tribal Theology? Because what I experienced in Pu Tluanga's home was not just Mizo culture. It was Theology in action.

1. Dalit Theology Connection: Dalit Theology by Arvind P. Nirmal says: God is the God of the Dalits, the broken, the oppressed. The host family gave their best room to me, a stranger, and slept in adjustment. They chose to be the "less" so I could be "more." That is exactly what Jesus did — He became poor so we become rich (2 Cor 8:9). My host family lived Dalit Theology without knowing the book.

2. Tribal Theology Connection: But Tlawmngaihna is more than Dalit. It is deeply Tribal. Tribal Theology pioneers like Rev. Dr. Renthy Keitzar (Nagaland), Dr. K. Thanzauva, and Dr. Lalrinawmi Ralte (Mizoram) say: “Tribal theology is Community first, Individual second.” A Naga, a Mizo, a Hmar never lives for self.

Tribal theology is Land is not property, Land is identity. Lunglei people didn't host us in "houses" — they hosted us in their ram, their belonging. Tribal theology is Oral, Lived, not Written. No book taught Pu Tluanga to wash a mud-caked car. No sermon taught his wife to wake at 5 AM to cook for me before our session. It is in their blood, in their sakhua transformed by Gospel.

The Difference I Learned in Lunglei:

Dalit Theology = Struggle against oppression — God lifting the downtrodden.

Tribal Theology = Celebration of community — God dwelling in our sharing, our clan, our Tlawmngaihna.

My host family was both. They were Dalit in spirit — they emptied themselves. They were Tribal in root — they celebrated community. So I changed my title in my heart: My Lunglei story is not just CCM Inkhawmpui Lian. It is When Tlawmngaihna Became Dalit and Tribal Theology.

In Seminary we read Tribal Theology in library. In Lunglei I ate Tribal Theology on a plate, slept on it on a bed, and wore it as a freshly washed shirt.

READ NEXT - My Lunglei CCM Inkhawmpui Lian Series:

1. My Lunglei Hospitality Story - When Tlawmngaihna Became Theology (English)

2. Lunglei CCM Inkhawmpui Lian-a Tlawmngaihna Leh Mikhual Chhawnna Ropui (Mizo)

My Lunglei Hospitality Story - When Tlawmngaihna Became Theology: How My Host Showed Me Tlâwmngaihna & Hospitality During CCM Inkhawmpui Lian

I visited Lunglei during CCM Inkhawmpui Lian 2-na. The host of the grand 2nd Assembly of CCM was BCM Venglai, Lunglei Kohhran.

I went to see Pu Buanga's tombstone from London, you can read the full articles in this link.

I Visited Pu Buanga's Original Tombstone in Lunglei - History Brought from London

But today I want to write not about the tombstone or the archives, but about my (our) host family and the host of the Conference, CCM Inkhawmpui Lian, BCM, Venglai, Lunglei.

During Inkhawmpui Lian, I got the highest and supreme hospitality from my host family in Lunglei. Pu HS Liantluanga and family are God gifted family. We called him Pu Tluanga. His beloved wife is Pi Hriati. They have a beautiful and lovely family and blessed with three children- Remi, Mawii and Mala. Malsawmtluanga (Mala) is currently studying MBBS at RIMS (Regional Institute of Medical Sciences), Imphal.

I have attended many Inkhawmpui Lian before, in Aizawl, in Shillong, Haflong and elsewhere but this one was different.

Before we went to CCM Inkhawmpui Lian at Lunglei, my wife was having a shooting pain - from buttock down to leg, like sciatica. She could not sit long in the pandal. She could not do the household chores precisely. But, I left her alone (as our children are studying at Churachandpur) with a prayer. With zest and zeal we moved ahead to Lunglei with excitements, because the trip is going to be great adventure since it will be my first time towards Southern Mizoram.

Before reaching Counter (a reporting booth) our host Pu Tluanga call us several times and he waited us near SP Office, Lunglei. After registering at the counter, we hurriedly moved toward our host's house as it was about to get dark. We were new, we were shy to approach and say even a word. Ironically, my host did not wait for us to say.  First, they vacated their best bedroom for us. Not the common room, their own bedroom. They said, "Hei hi in khum a ni tawh, nuam deuin hetah hian mu rawh u." They shifted their children to their parents room as well. Second, food was amazing. My host aunty and her daughter nula Remi prepared an all time Mizo delicious food. Third, the love and friendship they showed to us was stunning. It surpasses the very word that we described. Love and Friendship is practicality. It’s not just a gesture or outward appearance, it comes from the inner being.  

I would like pour out the Hospitality and the Mizo moral code ‘Tlawmngaihna” from the very host church of CCM Inkhawmpui Lian 2-na-BCM Venglai Kohhran. The local church (BCM Venglai Kohhran) were stunningly well prepared for the Inkhawmpui Lian. They assigned several department for the success of this Inkhawmpui Lian. Every single member of Venglai Kohhran depicts the highest and supreme sacrifice for the success of this Inkhawmpui Lian. Even the Children Department (Kohhran Naupang Pawl-KNP) presented ‘Halleluijah Chorus’ magically; crooning with their dulcet voices beautifully. They produced a masterclass display in flawless and their brilliant execution with dynamic and immense energy was impressive and captivating.

The Ushering Team (Steward) did a brilliant job. They are no less different than a flight attendant in a big aircraft. Their smiling face, their politeness, their effectiveness in physical seat arrangement left the audience spellbound. Politeness is the absolute cornerstone of effective ushering. This is exactly what the host church did. It was an exceptional stellar execution.

The flawless execution of our multi-day event is a direct result of the hard work and dedication shown by the Banquet Operations Team and the Conference Services Department." Even the Sanitation Department did a brilliant job in maintaining fresh and proper hygiene.  They involved in using high-heat sanitation cycles for germ control alongside targeted facility cleaning plans for pest management at all time.

Evaluating all these in a snapshot, at CCM Inkhawmpui Lian, Lunglei, I came to understood succinctly - Hospitality and Tlawmngaihna. These are not two different things in Mizo. They are one.

In English theology books, Hospitality is "philoxenia" [Greek: φιλοξενία] - love for stranger.

Tlâwmngaihna does not have an equivalent english translation. It is a code of ethics that guides decisions and community participation in Mizo society. Rev. Dr. Vanlalchhuanawma argues that altruism is the closest definition in English for Tlâwmngaihna but that this further fails to encompass the scope and brevity of the philosophy deeper.

In our Mizo books, we often write about Tlawmngaihna as selfless service. But in Lunglei, I saw Hospitality and Tlâwmngaihna are same. True hospitality is Tlâwmngaihna. And true Tlâwmngaihna is hospitality.

What is the difference then?

Hospitality is what you do for a guest. Tlawmngaihna is why you do it without expecting return. My (Our) host did both. They gave us the Highest Hospitality and supreme Tlâwmngaihna.

They did it without us asking, and without expecting thank you (Tlawmngaihna). The Bible says in Hebrews 13:2 - "Do not forget to show hospitality to strangers, for by so doing some people have shown hospitality to angels without knowing it." And in Romans 12:13 - "Share with the Lord's people who are in need. Practice hospitality."

Our Mizo pi pu practiced Hebrews 13:2 before they could read it. When a stranger comes to a Mizo village, even today in Lunglei, you are not a guest, you are family. Pu Buanga (Rev. L.H. Lorrain) also received this same hospitality when he first came. And he gave it back with supreme tlâwmngaihna. That is why people still remember his tombstone after 100 years. Because he lived Tlawmngaihna + Hospitality.

Today in some cities, we have lost some of this. We have hotels for Inkhawmpui guests. We have catering. Everything is paid. Hospitality becomes a service. But in Lunglei during this CCM Inkhawmpui Lian, I saw the originality of what Hospitality and Tlâwmngaihna is all about.

It is not about big money. My host family is well to do family. But they gave us their best. That is supreme hospitality. Not five-star hotel, but five-star heart. So my theology learning is: Dalit theology teaches us about hospitality to the broken. Tribal Theology teaches us about the Christian faith through the lens of indigenous cultural heritage, communal living, and the ongoing struggle against social, economic, and ecological injustice. This can be interpreted in different spectrum from this CCM Inkhawmpui Lian at Lunglei.

[Here is the Leaders of CCM (CCM_Puipate) Group photo]

Tribal theology, our Mizo theology, must teach hospitality + Tlawmngaihna together - how to welcome stranger as self.

During CCM Inkhawmpui Lian at Lunglei, I went to research Pu Buanga's history from London. But I went back with a bigger history - the living history of Mizo hospitality. To my host family and the Church BCM Venglai Kohhran in Lunglei - if you are reading this - Ka/n lawm lutuk e. In tlâwmngaihna leh in mikhual chhawnna hi ka theihnghilh ngai lo vang.

Have you received such hospitality during Inkhawmpui Lian? Have you shown it?

Comment your Inkhawmpui host story.

[Published with permission from Pu HS Liantluanga family, Venglai, Lunglei]

Read in Mizo here:

Lunglei CCM Inkhawmpui Lian-a Tlâwmngaihna Leh Mikhual Chhawnna Ropui

Also

What is Tlawmngaihna in Mizo Culture? (From the Lens of Tribal and Dalit Theology)

I Visited Pu Buanga's Original Tombstone in Lunglei - History Brought from London

To attend the Council of Churches in Mizoram (CCM) Biennial Meeting at Lunglei, we went on Car with three of my co-workers from Tuivai Presbytery. After a long drive almost 13 Hrs (from initial) we reached Lunglei city before dark safe and sound. 

During the 2nd Grand Assembly of the Council of Churches in Mizoram (CCM) at BCM Church Venglai, Lunglei (Kalvari Biak In), where I attended, I got some free time and visited the BCM Headquarters Archives at Serkawn with Pu Liantluanga, my host. 

My heart was deeply moved when I saw Pu Buanga's tombstone that was brought from London! 

I saw something that gave me goosebumps - the ORIGINAL tombstone of Rev. J.H. Lorrain (Pu Buanga), brought from South Ealing Cemetery, London in 2015.

What is this Memorial?

In the glass case you see two stone slabs that say "Pioneer Missionary to the Lushai Tribe India 1893-1932". 

This is not a replica - this is the actual stone from London where Pu Buanga was buried in July 1944, aged 74.

In 2017, BCM Assembly at Chanmari, Lunglei decided to honor our first missionaries by restoring their graves - Sap Upa (F.W. Savidge) in Cambridgeshire and Pu Buanga in London. A BCM team brought these stones back to Mizoram to preserve our history.

Why Pu Buanga is Father of Mizoram?

1. With Sap Upa, he landed at Sairang on Jan 11, 1894. 

2. Created Mizo alphabet using Roman script. 

3. Translated Gospel of Luke, John, Acts and made first Mizo Dictionary - the famous Pu Buanga Dictionary. 

4. First baptism at Nghasih river, Lunglei on 20 Jan 1904 - 23 believers.

My Experience at the Archives

At BCM Library & Archives Room, Serkawn, you will see timeline of Lushai Hills, pictures of Savidge and Lorrain, their original graves in UK, and "Their Story in Pictures Part II" - old black & white photos of early converts, churches, schools.

The Dining Table of Pu Buanga (JH Lorrain) and his colleague was preserved precisely. It is a reminiscent of God's provision in their ministry at Mizoram. 

The atmosphere is quiet, reverent. Two persons in my photo were also visitors - we stood in silence seeing how one man's obedience in 1890 changed the whole identity of Mizoram.

How to Visit?

Location: Baptist Church of Mizoram Headquarters, Serkawn, Lunglei District - 2nd biggest church in Mizoram. 

Timing: Contact BCM Archives & Library Dept. 

Permit: Ask at BCM office - very helpful staff. 

Tip: Combine with Kawmzawl Park, Saikuti Hall, and Nghasih Stream - all within 10km.

If you are doing Theology or Mission History research like me, this place is a must. It connects Tribal Theology and our Mizo Christian identity. 

Have you visited this place? 

Share your story!

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MIZO

CCM Inkhawmpui Lian Vawi 2-na, Venglai, Lungleia ka telnaah hun awl ka neih veleh, ka thlenna Pu Liantluanga nen Serkawn BCM HQ Archives, Serkawn kan tlawh a. Pu Buanga thlan lung London aṭanga rawn hawn ka hmuh chuan ka thinlung a khawih hle mai! Rev. J.H. Lorrain (Pu Buanga) thlan lung tak tak, London South Ealing Cemetery aṭanga kum 2015-a BCM-in a rawn hawn chu ka hmu a!

He Lung Phun Hi Enge A Nih?

Dar thlalang chhunga lung pahnih inkhawm, "PIONEER MISSIONARY TO THE LUSHAI TRIBE INDIA 1893-1932" tia inziak kha thil lem a ni lo - London-a Pu Buanga July 1944-a kum 74-a a boral a, an phumna lung tak tak a ni.

Kum 2017 March 8-12 khan BCM Assembly Vawi 121-na Chanmari, Lunglei-ah chuan an rel a, hetiang hian "Kan Missionary hmasa berte kan ngaihhlutna leh kan hriatrengna lantir nan an thlan hlute chei ṭhat nise." Missionary hmasa an thlan awmna te chu:

1. Sap Upa (Rev. F.W. Savidge) Stretham, UK 

2. Pu Buanga (Rev. J.H. Lorrain) South Ealing, London. 

BCM team te London-ah kalin phalna lain he lung (Pu Buanga thlan) hi Mizoram-ah an rawn hawn ta a ni. 

Engvangin Pu Buanga Hi Mizoram Pa A Nih?

(Mizoram Pa ti hi ka mimal ngaihtuah-na ṭang a ni e)

1. Sap Upa nen January 11, 1894 ah Sairang an rawn thleng - Tunah Missionary Day kan tih chu. 

2. Mizo hawrawp Roman hawrawp hmangin a siam - A, AW, B, CH... 

3. Luka, Johana, Tirhkohte ziak leh Mizo Dictionary hmasa ber - "Pu Buanga Dictionary" tih lar tak kha a siam. 

4. Nghasih lui, Serkawn-ah Jan 20, 1904 ah mi 23 hnenah baptisma a pe hmasa ber.

London Post Office-a Telegraphist hna thawktu, chanchinbu-a Mary Winchester naupang Lushai hovin an man lai thlalak a hmuh aṭangin "Heng hnam bo te hnenah Chanchin Tha ka hrilh ang" tiin a intiam a. Theology degree pawh nei lo, van kohna chauh neih a ni.

Ka Tawnhriat - Archives Room Ah

BCM Archives & Library Room-ah chuan Timeline of Lushai Hills, Sap Upa leh Pu Buanga thlan UK-a awm lai thlalak, "Their Story In Pictures Part II" - kan pi leh pu te hmanlai thlalak dum leh var, kohhran hmasa, sikul hmasa te a awm vek.

A reh ruih mai a, zahna leh chawimawina a khat. Ka thlalak-a ka dinpui te nen khan ngawi rengin kan en a - Mi pakhat inpekna avangin Mizoram pumpui hmel a danglam vek tih ka hre chhuak.

Engtin Nge Kan Tlawh Theih?

Hmun: Baptist Church of Mizoram Headquarters, Serkawn, Lunglei District - Mizoram-a kohhran lian ber dawttu. 

Hun: BCM Archives & Library Dept biak tur. 

Permit: BCM office ah dil mai tur, an fel em. 

Tip: Kawmzawl Park, Saikuti Hall, Nghasih Lui te nen - 10km chhung vek an ni.

Theology zir te, Mission History ngaina te tan chuan he hmun hi tlawh ngei ngei tur a ni. Tribal Theology leh Mizo Kristianna inzawmna a lang chiang hle. 

Nang engtik nge i tlawh ve? 

I tawnhriat comment ah min lo hrilh ve teh!

READ NEXT - My Lunglei CCM Inkhawmpui Lian Series:

1. My Lunglei Hospitality Story - When Tlawmngaihna Became Theology (English)

2. Lunglei CCM Inkhawmpui Lian-a Tlawmngaihna Leh Mikhual Chhawnna Ropui (Mizo)

INDIGENOUS MUSIC AND WORSHIP

As South Asians, we are proud of our national cultures and indigenous music and would like to use these to enable believers to worship in their “heart culture”. Doing this requires a healthy understanding of both biblical worship and local culture.

First of all, what is biblical worship? Worship is the act of paying honour to a deity. In the OT, the word translated as “worship” literally means prostrating oneself, falling on one’s knees and touching the ground with one’s forehead. This used to be the way one showed respect for a human ruler. Today, “worship” refers to the reverential attitude of mind and body with which people should approach God. It symbolises religious adoration, obedience and service.

In the NT, the word translated as “worship” literally means kissing someone’s hand or the ground, and thus also implies prostrating oneself before a superior. It represents an acknowledgment of the greatness of God and of our own inadequacy, leading us to fall before him and acknowledge him as Lord.

Different churches have developed different styles of worship, but the heart of worship must remain our acknowledging God as Lord and giving him glory and honour. Everything else about our worship is based on human culture and personal preferences.

We sometimes fall short of this biblical understanding of worship when our worship becomes more entertainment-oriented than Godoriented.

We attend church in order to “get something out of the service”, rather than to worship God and serve others who attend (Heb 10:25). We become observers rather than participants in the worship and do not “offer the sacrifice of praise to God, the fruit of lips that openly profess his name” (Heb 13:15). This form of passive, self-centred, entertainment worship is not only wrong biblically, but is also at odds with South Asian culture. Worship in Asian religions is active and God-centred with the worshippers engaging in symbolic acts that demonstrate their piety.

Though some early Western missionaries tried to work with the available forms of worship in the local culture, many others, fearing syncretism, dismissed local culture as evil. This led them to steer Christians away from their local culture and from indigenous forms of worship. Converts were taught to worship in forms that were familiar to the West but alien to Asian culture. The influence of this type of teaching continues in South Asian churches today. But we cannot blame just the missionaries for our alienation from indigenous culture.

The scientific and technological advances of the West also impressed South Asians. In the early nineteenth century many uncritically embraced the culture of the colonisers without reflecting on its suitability for local worship.

Whatever the reasons for adopting Western forms of worship and music in the past, there has recently been a move to integrate indigenous music and worship styles in Christian worship. There is increasing use of bhajans and kirtans and of instruments such as the harmonium and tabla. Katha Kalatchepam (a traditional blend of songs, drama and storytelling) is being used to expound biblical stories.

It is worthwhile to mentioned the Northeast India indigenous music and worship, especially the Mizos. Indigenous Mizo music and worship are closely linked to their indigenous background. Having developed from oral traditions rooted in nature into a distinctive, colourful manifestation of Christian faith. In order to exalt God, this complex cultural synthesis mainly depends on community involvement, vocal harmonies, and traditional instruments.

In mission schools, congregational singing, tonic-sol-fa training, and translated evangelical hymns were the first forms of music. These eventually adopted native rhythms, fusing local poetic meters with Western hymnody.

Inkhawm Zai is one important aspect of indigenous worship. It is a robust, un-choreographed congregational singing practiced during regular church services

A quintessential Mizo communal singing tradition. It mainly takes place during events like Christmas or wakes, where villagers sit together for hours singing dedicated devotional songs called Lengkhawm Zai.

The Khuang (Drum) (khuong in Hmar) is a major traditional Mizo instrument popularized in modern church services. A famous Mizo proverb, Khuang lova chai ang ("a festival without a drum"), signifies that life and worship are incomplete without rhythm.

All these signify and edify the traditional and indigenous forms of worship. Using an indigenous musical instrument magnify and glorify the Living God in their own cultural context.

Churches and worship leaders are being called to develop cultural and biblical sensitivity and to be willing to contextualise worship, understand the cultural context of the church in their community and be aware of the heart language of the people. They need to be bold in their use of cultural forms that have not been used in the church before. They also need to have a deep understanding of the local culture of the church in each region and of its indigenous styles of music, traditions and history if they are to avoid syncretism and ensure that the people can truly express their worship and adoration of God in their heart culture, When we worship in this way, our worship will be acceptable to God while also being more contextually relevant, meaningful and spiritually uplifting.

DALITS

DALITS

Dalits have long endured the injustice and indignity imposed on them by the caste system, which operates in various forms through South Asia, especially in India. They have suffered discrimination, dispossession and subjugation, and the theory of karma has been used to make them accept their plight as their punishment for sins committed in a previous life. The name they have chosen for themselves, Dalit, is apt.

It comes from a root word dal, which is also found in the OT. In Hebrew it literally means “crushed”, “hanging down”, “languid”, “weakened”, “low” and “feeble”. Unlike the Dalits in South Asia, the people referred to by this name in the OT were not untouchables, but the “poorest” of the poor (2 Kgs 24:14; Jer 52:15). The word used to describe them emphasises their broken condition rather than just their poverty.

The origins of the South Asian caste system may lie in the subjugation of the original inhabitants of the region by the invading Aryans in the Vedic Age (1750-500 BC). In the centuries that have elapsed since then, the system has not gone unchallenged. Both Mahavira (540-468 BC) and the Buddha (563-483 BC) rejected it, but Buddhism did not find widespread acceptance in India. Dalits also experienced some emancipation under Muslim rule after AD 800, in that they were allowed to serve in the army. The Sufi sect of Islam also advocated social equality. Then in the twelfth century AD the Hindu Bhakti movement undermined the caste system by emphasising belief in one God, the equality of all castes and the unity of religions.

This movement later produced great saints and poets like Namdev and Ravidas, both of whom belonged to the Sudra or lowest/servant caste.

Despite these movements towards equality, the caste system continued. In the British era, Dalit self-assertion contributed to the 1857 Uprising. When Mangal Pandey, an upper-caste Hindu soldier, refused to give water to an untouchable on the ground that his touch would pollute the vessel, the untouchable reacted by taunting him that the cartridges he would have to bite off were coated with pork and beef fat. Pork was anathema to Muslims and beef to Hindus. This shock, in combination with other events, led to the full-blown Sepoy Mutiny, later referred to as the First War of Indian Independence. The British put down the mutiny and assumed direct government of India.

The next phase of the Dalit struggle against oppression was marked by the mass conversions of entire Dalit groups to egalitarian religions, particularly Christianity. These conversions shook the foundations of the Indian social order. So did the spread of Western education and the Western legal system, new land policies, industrial development and the rise of movements advocating for democracy and civil rights. Dr B. R. Ambedkar, one of the first Dalits to receive higher education, propelled Dalit consciousness to new heights by exposing oppressive caste-driven conditions. He argued that liberation was possible if the untouchables pursued self-organisation, education and protest.

Dr Ambedkar subsequently converted to Buddhism along with nearly 400,000 of his followers. This event in 1956 began what was later to be known as Neo-Buddhism (the modern Buddhist revivalist movement). Interestingly, in designing Neo-Buddhism, Dr Ambedkar closely followed the patterns and structures of Christianity.

The famous Ambedkar-Gandhi 1932 Poona Pact gave shape to the present reservation policy mandating that certain places in schools, government offices and public sector units be reserved for Dalits.

Unfortunately, as a result, Dalits are still defined in terms of their relationship to other castes. Moreover, when Dalits turn from Hinduism and embrace Sikhism, Islam or Christianity, they are often denied access to positions and benefits reserved for Dalits. The result has been that some Christian Dalits have publicly reverted back to Hinduism while remaining Christians at heart.

The Dalit Christian movement gained visibility in an all-India demonstration in New Delhi on 17 August 1990. This demonstration was organised to protest the continuing marginalisation of Dalits within the church and the withholding from Christian Dalits of facilities extended to Hindu Dalits under the 1950 Presidential Order.

Although the church in South Asia has publicly declared its support for Dalits and its opposition to caste discrimination, the caste system is still very much part of the church and the lives of Christians in this region. To some extent, this may be traced back to the missionary period, when foreign missionaries found it difficult to understand and deal with casteism and its ramifications. Some of them opposed it totally, while others tried to adapt it and use it rather than reject it altogether.

Today, in some parts of the country, there is widespread casteism within the church, with opposition to inter-caste marriages and even to embracing Dalits as full members of the church, with the same rights and privileges as all other members. On the other hand, in North India, for example, a significant majority of church members are from Dalit and Adivasi (tribal) backgrounds, and Christianity is thus perceived as a religion of the untouchables. This, in turn, creates problems in reaching out to other groups.

Churches must be sensitive to the discrimination experienced by Dalits and should set up specialised structures or strategies to equip and empower them with knowledge and information about their rights and duties, to mobilise them into organised bodies and to enhance advocacy for their education in state, private and church-run educational institutions.

CASTE

In many regions of Asia, the caste system still rules. People are divided into castes and subcastes, each with a caste name and a fixed place in the hierarchy of castes. Members of one group are not allowed to intermarry or even eat with those from other groups.

The caste divisions are not based on any known principle. They are not racial in character; they do not separate professions; they do not denote cultural differences. Yet all these elements are present in the caste system. The members of some groups do have hereditary professions. But following that profession will not make one a member of that group, nor will abandoning that profession lead to exclusion from the caste. Membership is determined solely by birth; no other consideration applies. There is thus no way anyone born into a lower caste can rise to a higher caste status.

The highest caste, the Brahmins, are said to have sprung from the mouth of Brahman, the creator god, and are thus qualified to be priests. The Kshatriyas sprang from his arms and are warriors, the Vaishya from his thighs and are traders, while the Sudras sprang from his feet and are only qualified to be servants or slaves. Hinduism considers this a spiritual system and the ideal organising principle for society. By contrast, the Bible says that all without distinction are made from the same substance (the dust of the ground – Gen 2:7) and that all are also made in the image of God (Gen 1:26). Thus we all share the same humble origins, and the same honour. And we all, without exception, are tainted by sin (Rom 3:23).

The caste system benefits the higher castes while leading to increasing degradation for the lowest caste. Sudras and Dalits are shunned. Contact with them is seen as polluting. It was this emphasis on purity and impurity that led Portuguese explorers to use the Portuguese word casta (purity) to describe the entire Hindu social order.

Defining a specific group as polluting and treating them as a cancer in society often results in cultural or ethnic cleansing. The authorities tend to turn a blind eye to the rape, torture and murder of lower caste people. Yet officially, governments oppose the caste system. They have set in place a mechanism of compensatory discrimination whereby some posts and places in educational institutions are reserved for lower castes. Although well-intentioned and necessary, this approach has not contributed to the abolition of caste but to its preservation, for even those who fight against the caste system want to preserve caste privileges.

Despite urbanisation, industrialisation and legislation, land, property and jobs are still assigned on the basis of caste. Its effects are felt in factories and housing colonies. Dalits or “untouchables” are prohibited from entering many temples (although it is true that in Nepal, at least, low-caste Nepalis have won access to many temples and some Dalits have become priests. However this is more the exception than the rule).

One of the worst consequences of caste discrimination is that it leads many into slavery of the mind, an unquestioning acceptance that they are untouchable, polluted and polluting because of their birth, and should never aspire to making any contribution to society. They cling fiercely to any scraps of dignity they may find, with the result that the Sudra caste has splintered into mutually hostile and mutually untouchable outcaste communities.

Caste has even affected the church. The tyrannies of caste oppression have driven some outcastes to convert to the gospel of Christ, seeing this as offering release from a socioeconomic, religious and political oppression that is equivalent to the Egyptian bondage of the Israelites. Conversion to Christ has indeed been shown to have liberated some of the outcastes from an oppressive culture. They have seen themselves in a new light and have developed self-esteem and self-worth that has helped them to throw off the stigma of being classified as untouchable. Their newly positive attitude has paved the way for them to move to new areas and into new occupations.

But conversion has also brought persecution in a new form. Some who are baptised are told that they thereby forfeit any right to the government positions and places in schools and universities reserved for Dalits. Caste divisions have also been exploited by those who seek to use one caste against another caste, as happened during the persecution of Christians in the Kanthamal district of Odisha.

Even within the church, Dalits’ experience has not always been positive. Not all Christians have taken to heart the Bible’s teaching on our equality before God (Gal 3:28) and James’ condemnation of favouritism (Jas 2:1-12). Dalits have sometimes been made to sit apart from the rest of the congregation. Pastors have refused to offer Holy Communion to believers from the sweeper class. Believers have refused to let their children marry outside their own caste. Outcastes still face discrimination from their fellow Christians. In some cases, this has driven them away from Christ.

The problems with caste in the church are not restricted to the people in the pews or the lower levels of leadership. It is shameful to admit it, but caste sometimes plays a role even in the election of bishops and other church leaders. Almost every Christian denomination in South Asia has had to deal with dissension and court cases sparked by caste practices within the churches.

While the South Asian church officially condemns the practice of caste, the church is still a slave to this evil. We need prophets like Amos to speak boldly against this evil practice and condemn those who practise it without fear of God who has created everyone in his image. The church, its training institutions and Christian NGOs must make every effort to eradicate caste. The church, together with other institutions, must evolve strategies to fight it at all levels. One fundamental step would be to discourage employers and people in general from ever asking individuals about their caste identity. But this should be accompanied by a drive to transform people’s mindset in terms of inter-dining, intermarriage, the sharing of resources and similar matters. Caste barriers will fall finally only when people recognise the importance of showing respect to every human being.

Within the church, we should seek to build a new society in which all the old distinctions have fallen away. Christians should enter into new relationships not only with those of their own caste but also with those of other castes. Brahmins should consider Dalits as brothers and sisters in the Lord, and Dalits should embrace them in the same way.

Together we should form a new community, living in a way that will reduce the frequent inter- and intra-community feuds and help everyone to be seamlessly integrated in the fabric of society.

The church in South Asia needs to be an active participant in the struggle to liberate the poor and the oppressed who are victims of the caste system.

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN TRIBAL THEOLOGY

Introduction

This writing will explore the tribal methodological issues in doing theology in a tribal context and culture. It attempt to highlight major methodological issues with the models of contextualization about the methodology. It will critically assess and reflect on the various methodological issues and bring out a stimulated conclusion.

1. What is Methodology

The term method is derived from the Greek ‘methodos’, which means ‘going after’ or a ‘way of doing anything. Merriam-Webster defines methodology as “a body of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline or the analysis of the principles or procedures of inquiry in a particular field.[1]

Theological methodology is understood as a working principle used by theologians in the articulation of theology with a view to achieving a theological vision of the community of faith or of the theologians themselves.

2. Tribal Methodological issues

Tribal theology seeks liberation from the perspective of land also their history, culture, religion, spirituality and even the Supreme Being are important aspect to reflect upon.[2] Certain methodological issues in shaping the tribal theology will be discuss as follows:

2.1. Issues in Contextual Theology

Contextual theology is a departure from classical theology which conceived theology as a science of faith drawn from the scripture and traditions. It tries to draw scripture and tradition, considering their culture, socio-economic and political issues and the struggles of people for their liberation as the source of their theology.[3]

It validate their culture and tradition and gives fuller awareness and self confidence in their own culture, and gives more concern in their context and particular culture. However, in contextual theology especially in tribal context there are incoherency and inconsistency in its account of faith and in relation to other dimension of faith. There are several strata which cannot be translatable into worship and incorporated in preaching it remains abstract and irrelevant. As the society is changing and cannot be static.[4]

2.2 Models of Contextual Theology

Models are certainly helpful for distinguishing various approaches but certain issues are visible in models of contextual theology as it cannot be rigidly classified and not possible to draw a precise boundary line sometimes intertwined or overlapped with one another. Some of the important Models of contextual Theology are highlighted below:

2.2.1. Translation Model:

Basically there are two methods-literal translations, word to word and functional or dynamic translation. Concerns with dynamic equivalence. Contextualization of the gospel message requires encoding-decoding-encoding of the message. [5] Mostly Tribal translations are based on dynamic equivalence but some critics that the culture has to be incorporated or inculturated in the translation. But, there is a danger or tendency of assimilating animistic elements into Christian faith because such intrusion may distort the gospel truth.[6]

2.2.2. Synthetic Model

Synthetic approach or model is the view that the truth in any cultures in itself is not regarded as adequate for faith until it interacts with the truth revealed in Jesus Christ. It is a fusion of two horizons Judea-Christian traditions and tribal culture traditions synthesizing a new form of theology. But, the theology and dogmas of the tribal’s continue to remain alien to the culture. Christianity among the tribal’s does not take deep root in the culture and remains, instead, superficial.[7]

2.2.3. Praxis model

Praxis model is an action-reflection method. This approach is a reflection on action for further action. Praxis is the very method of liberation theology. Theology must be a critical reflection on action in which hermeneutical circle should be spirally moving. In Tribal theology (exp.NEI) no substantial theological reflection on the struggle of the people has been made. Within the umbrella of the praxis model, feminist and ecological methods or theology effort to develop the tribal approach is meager.[8]

2.3 Theological Hermeneutics

Tribal theological hermeneutics is imperative in the present stage for the tribals/ indigenous people of the world and especially in India. It is because only through relevant tribal hermeneutics that they can bridge the different gaps in their context: between theo-centrism and anthropocentrism, tradition and modernity, human and creation, man and woman, community and individual and theory and praxis.  The tribal theological hermeneutics is its search for theological “meanings” in the context of the living realities of the tribal/indigenous people. It searches for relevant message of liberation and transformation, and it also tries to interpret the stories of the bible and tribal cultures in a contextual manner so that there will be significant meanings applicable to the living reality of the tribal people.[9]

The need of tribal theological hermeneutics arises more so in the context of tribal churches which are relatively silent on the question of socio- political economic and traditional cultural dimensions.[10]

The need for construction of tribal hermeneutics is not necessarily to condemn what the western missionaries, historians, ethnographers and anthropologies had done for the tribals but it is with deep appreciative objectivity one needs to critically re-examine and re-interpret their work as well as, to demystify the tribal realities and their socio- religious tradition from the eyes of the tribals.[11]

Tribal theological hermeneutics aims that oral traditions speak horizontal to the present tribal people. In the backdrop of interpretation of oral interpretation of oral tradition in mind, the researcher intends to formulate a relevant tribal theological hermeneutics. [12]

2.4 Divergence from Colonialism

The British colonization of India in the 18^th century which eventually led to the British control over the north east region in the 19^th century and this region was mostly inhabited by the indigenous populations and the pioneer missionaries were American Baptist Foreign Mission and Welsh Presbyterian mission.[13]

The British colonizers had an understated common goal of the colonial powers and the Christian mission was to embark on civilizing mission. The most potent weapon behind the civilizing mission was the philosophy that not only entertained but created the idea of superiority over the native race. The civilizing mission subsumes what the English called “improvement” or “betterment” and later on moral and material progress.[14]

The attitude of western colonizers and ethnographers regarding the tribal people was for the most negative part as illustrated by their need to name and define the tribals as primitive, uncivilized and a people with no character.[15] Such negative portrayal of the native people is part of the larger essentializing process or the othering of the other that is often employed by the colonial powers. This process of essentializing the natives was actively employed by the colonial powers with the Indians and other countries.[16]

In spite of all the good work of the missionaries failed to understand and appreciate the religious and cultural ethos of the tribal people. One of the primary tasks of tribal theology is to help tribal Christians overcome from such psychological feelings of inferiority and self-debasement which have been the consequences of long history of colonization and missionization.[17]

          2.5 Paradigm Shift      

Paradigm is similar with methodology but larger in its scope. Paradigm in theology means an interpretative model commonly agreed and shared by the members of community. It is specific and realistic set of agreed collective ideals.[18]

David J. Bosch asserts that in the field of religion, a paradigm shift always means both continuity and change, both faithfulness to the past and boldness to engage the future, both constancy and contingency, both tradition and transformation.[19] A new paradigm of theology usually emerges due to a change of situation. It is quite evident from history, both in theology and natural science, the whenever an old paradigm becomes obsolete and inadequate to meet contemporary needs, a new paradigm emerges.[20] Whenever such a shift of paradigm occurred, the old paradigm seldom disappeared completely.[21]

3. Reflection

Usually the choice of method depends on the theological vision of a theologian and the situation in which theology is constructed. The theological Vision started earlier has arisen from the situation in North East India where identity crisis, economic dependency, tribalism, ecological crisis and social injustice become the main theological agenda. In response to this complex situation, we are to integrate both social transformation and inculturation of the Christian gospel. In an attempt to develop vital and coherent theology, a coherent theological approach which focuses on the traditions and culture is indispensable. However, certain limitations and shortcomings which may deviate or distort the biblical message should be developed cautiously as it will distort the original message.

Conclusion

The methodological issues which shape the tribal theology are the striving force for the ongoing theological adventure. As the environment is changing and the shift (in focus) of the tribal world also steadily change, the theology also needs to evolve as the society is not static. This is a pointer or an agenda for a great sense of paradigm shift in Tribal Theology. The contextual theology which tends to draw scripture and traditions vis-à-vis the culture, socio-economic and political issues and the struggles of people cannot be fully fused together fittingly within the frame of the scripture due to which (sometimes) it became irrelevant and abstract. Hence, the various methodological issues highlighted in paper needs to introspect thoroughly and look back to the basics and formulated cautiously.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bosch, David J. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shift in Theology of Mission. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991.

Hesselgrave, D. Communication Christ Cross-Culturally. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979.

Kung, Hans and David Tracy, eds. The Paradigm Change in Theology: A symposium for the Future. Edinburg: T&T Clark, LTD., 1989.

Leitzar, Renthy. In Search of a Relevant Gospel Message. Guwahati: Christian Literature Centre, 1995.

Longchar, Wati. An Assessment of the tribal Theology: trends and challenges for future in Tribal theology on the move. Edited by Shimreingam Shimray and Limatula Longkumar; Tribal Study Series-14. Jorhat: Tribal Study Centres, 2006.

Maisuangdibou, M. Tribal theological hermeneutics: Methodological Issues in interpretation. New Delhi: Cambridge Press, 2014.

Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11^th  Edition. Merriam-Webster, Inc.. Kindle Edition.

Thanzauva, K. Theology of Community: Tribal Theology in the making. Aizawl: Mizo Theological Conference, 1997.

JOURNAL

Vashum, Yangkahao, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology and Its Methodology: A review and Proposal,” JTS XIII, No.1 (January – June 2008).

 

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[1] Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th Edition (Kindle Locations 729532-729533). Merriam-Webster, Inc.. Kindle Edition.

[2] Wati Longchar, An Assessment of the tribal Theology: trends and challenges for future in Tribal theology on the move. (eds. Shimreingam Shimray and Limatula Longkumar; Tribal Study Series-14. Jorhat: Tribal Study Centres 2006), 9.

[3] K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community: Tribal Theology in the making (Aizawl: Mizo Theological Conference, 1997), 58.

[4] K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community…, 63.

[5] D.Hesselgrave, Communication Christ Cross-Culturally (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979), 86.

[6] Renthy Leitzar, In Search of a Relevant Gospel Message (Guwahati: Christian Literature Centre, 1995), 1.

[7] K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community…, 77.

[8] R.L.Hnuni, Lima Longkumar, Wati Longchar, Takatemjem and others are advocates of this approach ironically action-reflection for further action or praxis oriented principle is far lacking behind.

[9]  M. Maisuangdibou, Tribal theological hermeneutics: Methodological Issues in interpretation (New Delhi: CambridgePress, 2014), 142 -143.

[10] M. Maisuangdibou, Tribal theological hermeneutics…, 143.

[11] M. Maisuangdibou, Tribal theological hermeneutics…, 144.

[12] M. Maisuangdibou, Tribal theological hermeneutics…, 145.

[13] Yangkahao Vashum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology and Its Methodology: A review and Proposal,” JTS XIII, No.1 (January – June 2008): 38.

[14] Yangkahao Vashum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology,” 39.

[15] Yangkahao Vashum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology,” 39.

[16] Yangkahao Vashum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology,” 40.

[17] Yangkahao Vashum, “Tribal/Indigenous Theology,” 41.

[18] K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community…, 54-55.

[19] David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shift in Theology of Mission, (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1991), 336.

[20] Hans Kung and David Tracy, eds., The Paradigm Change in Theology: A symposium for the Future, (Edinburg: T&T Clark, LTD., 1989), 20&23.

[21] K. Thanzauva, Theology of Community…, 55.